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Coordinates: 64°N150°W / 64°N 150°W^[1]

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Alaska (/əˈlæskə/(listen); Aleut: Alax̂sxax̂; Inupiaq: Alaasikaq; Alutiiq: Alas'kaaq;Tlingit: Anáaski;Russian: Аляска, romanized: Alyaska) is a U.S. state in the northwest extremity of the United States West Coast, just across the Bering Strait from Asia. The Canadian province of British Columbia and territory of Yukon border the state to the east and southeast. Its most extreme western part is Attu Island, and it has a maritime border with Russia (Chukotka Autonomous Okrug) to the west across the Bering Strait. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas—southern parts of the Arctic Ocean. The Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest. It is the largest U.S. state by area and the seventh largest subnational division in the world. In addition, it is the 3rd least populous and the most sparsely populated of the 50 United States; nevertheless, it is by far the most populous territory located mostly north of the 60th parallel in North America: its population—estimated at 738,432 by the United States Census Bureau in 2015^[4]— is more than quadruple the combined populations of Northern Canada and Greenland. Approximately half of Alaska's residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. Alaska's economy is dominated by the fishing, natural gas, and oil industries, resources which it has in abundance. United States armed forces bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy.

On March 30, 1867, the United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire for 7.2 million U.S. dollars, or approximately two cents per acre ($4.74/km²). The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11, 1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3, 1959.^[5]

• 2Geography
  • 2.1Regions
• 3History
• 4Demographics
• 5Economy
  • 5.1Energy
• 6Transportation
• 7Law and government
• 8Cities, towns and boroughs
• 11Culture
• 16External links

Etymology

The name 'Alaska' (Russian: Аляска, tr.Alyaska) was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the Alaska Peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut-languageidiom, which figuratively refers to the mainland. Literally, it means object to which the action of the sea is directed.^[6][7][8]

Geography

Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States and has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere.^[9] Alaska is the only non-contiguous U.S. state on continental North America; about 500 miles (800 km) of British Columbia (Canada) separates Alaska from Washington. It is technically part of the continental U.S., but is sometimes not included in colloquial use; Alaska is not part of the contiguous U.S., often called 'the Lower 48'. The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system.

The state is bordered by Yukon and British Columbia in Canada, to the east, the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean to the south and southwest, the Bering Sea, Bering Strait, and Chukchi Sea to the west and the Arctic Ocean to the north. Alaska's territorial waters touch Russia's territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island and Alaskan Little Diomede Island are only 3 miles (4.8 km) apart. Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U.S. states combined.^[10]

Alaska is the largest state in the United States by total area at 663,268 square miles (1,717,856 km²), over twice the size of Texas, the next largest state. Alaska is larger than all but 18 sovereign countries. Counting territorial waters, Alaska is larger than the combined area of the next three largest states: Texas, California, and Montana. It is also larger than the combined area of the 22 smallest U.S. states.

Regions

There are no officially defined borders demarcating the various regions of Alaska, but there are six widely accepted regions:

South Central

The most populous region of Alaska, containing Anchorage, the Matanuska-Susitna Valley and the Kenai Peninsula. Rural, mostly unpopulated areas south of the Alaska Range and west of the Wrangell Mountains also fall within the definition of South Central, as do the Prince William Sound area and the communities of Cordova and Valdez.^[11]

Southeast

Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the rest of the United States. As such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest, the largest national forest in the United States. It contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaska's largest city.^[12] The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital surface transportation link throughout the area, as only three communities (Haines, Hyder and Skagway) enjoy direct connections to the contiguous North American road system.^[13] Officially designated in 1963.^[14]

Interior

The Interior is the largest region of Alaska; much of it is uninhabited wilderness. Fairbanks is the only large city in the region. Denali National Park and Preserve is located here. Denali is the highest mountain in North America.

Southwest

Southwest Alaska is a sparsely inhabited region stretching some 500 miles (800 km) inland from the Bering Sea. Most of the population lives along the coast. Kodiak Island is also located in Southwest. The massive Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta, one of the largest river deltas in the world, is here. Portions of the Alaska Peninsula are considered part of Southwest, with the remaining portions included with the Aleutian Islands (see below).

North Slope

The North Slope is mostly tundra peppered with small villages. The area is known for its massive reserves of crude oil, and contains both the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska and the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field.^[15] The city of Utqiagvik, formerly known as Barrow, is the northernmost city in the United States and is located here. The Northwest Arctic area, anchored by Kotzebue and also containing the Kobuk River valley, is often regarded as being part of this region. However, the respective Inupiat of the North Slope and of the Northwest Arctic seldom consider themselves to be one people^{[citation needed]}.

Aleutian Islands

More than 300 small volcanic islands make up this chain, which stretches over 1,200 miles (1,900 km) into the Pacific Ocean. Some of these islands fall in the Eastern Hemisphere, but the International Date Line was drawn west of 180° to keep the whole state, and thus the entire North American continent, within the same legal day. Two of the islands, Attu and Kiska, were occupied by Japanese forces during World War II.

Natural features

With its myriad islands, Alaska has nearly 34,000 miles (55,000 km) of tidal shoreline. The Aleutian Islands chain extends west from the southern tip of the Alaska Peninsula. Many active volcanoes are found in the Aleutians and in coastal regions. Unimak Island, for example, is home to Mount Shishaldin, which is an occasionally smoldering volcano that rises to 10,000 feet (3,000 m) above the North Pacific. It is the most perfect volcanic cone on Earth, even more symmetrical than Japan's Mount Fuji. The chain of volcanoes extends to Mount Spurr, west of Anchorage on the mainland. Geologists have identified Alaska as part of Wrangellia, a large region consisting of multiple states and Canadian provinces in the Pacific Northwest, which is actively undergoing continent building.

One of the world's largest tides occurs in Turnagain Arm, just south of Anchorage, where tidal differences can be more than 35 feet (10.7 m).^[16]

Alaska has more than three million lakes.^[17]Marshlands and wetland permafrost cover 188,320 square miles (487,700 km²) (mostly in northern, western and southwest flatlands). Glacier ice covers about 28,957 square miles (75,000 km²) of Alaska.^[18] The Bering Glacier is the largest glacier in North America, covering 2,008 square miles (5,200 km²) alone.^[19]

Land ownership

According to an October 1998 report by the United States Bureau of Land Management, approximately 65% of Alaska is owned and managed by the U.S. federal government as public lands, including a multitude of national forests, national parks, and national wildlife refuges.^[21] Of these, the Bureau of Land Management manages 87 million acres (35 million hectares), or 23.8% of the state. The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. It is the world's largest wildlife refuge, comprising 16 million acres (6.5 million hectares).

Of the remaining land area, the state of Alaska owns 101 million acres (41 million hectares), its entitlement under the Alaska Statehood Act. A portion of that acreage is occasionally ceded to organized boroughs, under the statutory provisions pertaining to newly formed boroughs. Smaller portions are set aside for rural subdivisions and other homesteading-related opportunities. These are not very popular due to the often remote and roadless locations. The University of Alaska, as a land grant university, also owns substantial acreage which it manages independently.

Another 44 million acres (18 million hectares) are owned by 12 regional, and scores of local, Native corporations created under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) of 1971. Regional Native corporationDoyon, Limited often promotes itself as the largest private landowner in Alaska in advertisements and other communications. Provisions of ANCSA allowing the corporations' land holdings to be sold on the open market starting in 1991 were repealed before they could take effect. Effectively, the corporations hold title (including subsurface title in many cases, a privilege denied to individual Alaskans) but cannot sell the land. Individual Native allotments can be and are sold on the open market, however.

Various private interests own the remaining land, totaling about one percent of the state. Alaska is, by a large margin, the state with the smallest percentage of private land ownership when Native corporation holdings are excluded.

Climate

The climate in Southeast Alaska is a mid-latitude oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb) in the southern sections and a subarctic oceanic climate (Köppen Cfc) in the northern parts. On an annual basis, Southeast is both the wettest and warmest part of Alaska with milder temperatures in the winter and high precipitation throughout the year. Juneau averages over 50 in (130 cm) of precipitation a year, and Ketchikan averages over 150 in (380 cm).^[22] This is also the only region in Alaska in which the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months.

The climate of Anchorage and south central Alaska is mild by Alaskan standards due to the region's proximity to the seacoast. While the area gets less rain than southeast Alaska, it gets more snow, and days tend to be clearer. On average, Anchorage receives 16 in (41 cm) of precipitation a year, with around 75 in (190 cm) of snow, although there are areas in the south central which receive far more snow. It is a subarctic climate (Köppen: Dfc) due to its brief, cool summers.

The climate of Western Alaska is determined in large part by the Bering Sea and the Gulf of Alaska. It is a subarctic oceanic climate in the southwest and a continental subarctic climate farther north. The temperature is somewhat moderate considering how far north the area is. This region has a tremendous amount of variety in precipitation. An area stretching from the northern side of the Seward Peninsula to the Kobuk River valley (i. e., the region around Kotzebue Sound) is technically a desert, with portions receiving less than 10 in (25 cm) of precipitation annually. On the other extreme, some locations between Dillingham and Bethel average around 100 in (250 cm) of precipitation.^[23]

The climate of the interior of Alaska is subarctic. Some of the highest and lowest temperatures in Alaska occur around the area near Fairbanks. The summers may have temperatures reaching into the 90s °F (the low-to-mid 30s °C), while in the winter, the temperature can fall below −60 °F (−51 °C). Precipitation is sparse in the Interior, often less than 10 in (25 cm) a year, but what precipitation falls in the winter tends to stay the entire winter.

The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in Alaska are both in the Interior. The highest is 100 °F (38 °C) in Fort Yukon (which is just 8 mi or 13 km inside the arctic circle) on June 27, 1915,^[24][25] making Alaska tied with Hawaii as the state with the lowest high temperature in the United States.^[26][27] The lowest official Alaska temperature is −80 °F (−62 °C) in Prospect Creek on January 23, 1971,^[24][25] one degree above the lowest temperature recorded in continental North America (in Snag, Yukon, Canada).^[28]

The climate in the extreme north of Alaska is Arctic (Köppen: ET) with long, very cold winters and short, cool summers. Even in July, the average low temperature in Utqiagvik is 34 °F (1 °C).^[29] Precipitation is light in this part of Alaska, with many places averaging less than 10 in (25 cm) per year, mostly as snow which stays on the ground almost the entire year.

History

Pre-colonization

Numerous indigenous peoples occupied Alaska for thousands of years before the arrival of European peoples to the area. Linguistic and DNA studies done here have provided evidence for the settlement of North America by way of the Bering land bridge.^[31] At the Upward Sun River site in the Tanana River Valley in Alaska, remains of a six-week-old infant were found. The baby's DNA showed that she belonged to a population that was genetically separate from other native groups present elsewhere in the New World at the end of the Pleistocene. Ben Potter, the University of Alaska Fairbanks archaeologist who unearthed the remains at the Upward River Sun site in 2013, named this new group Ancient Beringians.^[32] The Tlingit people developed a society with a matrilineal kinship system of property inheritance and descent in what is today Southeast Alaska, along with parts of British Columbia and the Yukon. Also in Southeast were the Haida, now well known for their unique arts. The Tsimshian people came to Alaska from British Columbia in 1887, when President Grover Cleveland, and later the U.S. Congress, granted them permission to settle on Annette Island and found the town of Metlakatla. All three of these peoples, as well as other indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, experienced smallpox outbreaks from the late 18th through the mid-19th century, with the most devastating epidemics occurring in the 1830s and 1860s, resulting in high fatalities and social disruption.^[33]

The Aleutian Islands are still home to the Aleut people's seafaring society, although they were the first Native Alaskans to be exploited by Russians. Western and Southwestern Alaska are home to the Yup'ik, while their cousins the Alutiiq ~ Sugpiaq lived in what is now Southcentral Alaska. The Gwich'in people of the northern Interior region are Athabaskan and primarily known today for their dependence on the caribou within the much-contested Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The North Slope and Little Diomede Island are occupied by the widespread Inupiat people.

Colonization

Some researchers believe that the first Russian settlement in Alaska was established in the 17th century.^[34] According to this hypothesis, in 1648 several koches of Semyon Dezhnyov's expedition came ashore in Alaska by storm and founded this settlement. This hypothesis is based on the testimony of Chukchi geographer Nikolai Daurkin, who had visited Alaska in 1764–1765 and who had reported on a village on the Kheuveren River, populated by 'bearded men' who 'pray to the icons'. Some modern researchers associate Kheuveren with Koyuk River.^[35]

The first European vessel to reach Alaska is generally held to be the St. Gabriel under the authority of the surveyor M. S. Gvozdev and assistant navigator I. Fyodorov on August 21, 1732, during an expedition of Siberian cossak A. F. Shestakov and Belarusian explorer Dmitry Pavlutsky (1729–1735).^[36]

Another European contact with Alaska occurred in 1741, when Vitus Bering led an expedition for the Russian Navy aboard the St. Peter. After his crew returned to Russia with sea otter pelts judged to be the finest fur in the world, small associations of fur traders began to sail from the shores of Siberia toward the Aleutian Islands. The first permanent European settlement was founded in 1784.

Between 1774 and 1800, Spain sent several expeditions to Alaska in order to assert its claim over the Pacific Northwest. In 1789 a Spanish settlement and fort were built in Nootka Sound. These expeditions gave names to places such as Valdez, Bucareli Sound, and Cordova. Later, the Russian-American Company carried out an expanded colonization program during the early-to-mid-19th century.

Sitka, renamed New Archangel from 1804 to 1867, on Baranof Island in the Alexander Archipelago in what is now Southeast Alaska, became the capital of Russian America. It remained the capital after the colony was transferred to the United States. The Russians never fully colonized Alaska, and the colony was never very profitable. Evidence of Russian settlement in names and churches survive throughout southeast Alaska.

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On March 30, 1867, the United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire for the sum of $7.2 million. It was not until October of that year that the commissioners arrived in Sitka and the formal transfer was arranged. The formal flag-raising took place at Fort Sitka on October 18, 1867. The original ceremony included 250 uniformed U.S. soldiers, who marched to the governor's house at 'Castle Hill'. Here the Russian troops lowered the Russian flag and the U.S. flag was raised. This event is celebrated as Alaska Day, a legal holiday on the 18th of October.

William H. Seward, the United States Secretary of State, negotiated the Alaska Purchase (also known as Seward's Folly) with the Russians in 1867 for $7.2 million. Alaska was loosely governed by the military initially, and was administered as a district starting in 1884, with a governor appointed by the President of the United States. A federal district court was headquartered in Sitka.

For most of Alaska's first decade under the United States flag, Sitka was the only community inhabited by American settlers. They organized a 'provisional city government', which was Alaska's first municipal government, but not in a legal sense.^[37] Legislation allowing Alaskan communities to legally incorporate as cities did not come about until 1900, and home rule for cities was extremely limited or unavailable until statehood took effect in 1959.

Alaska as a U.S. Territory

Starting in the 1890s and stretching in some places to the early 1910s, gold rushes in Alaska and the nearby Yukon Territory brought thousands of miners and settlers to Alaska. Alaska was officially incorporated as an organized territory in 1912. Alaska's capital, which had been in Sitka until 1906, was moved north to Juneau. Construction of the Alaska Governor's Mansion began that same year. European immigrants from Norway and Sweden also settled in southeast Alaska, where they entered the fishing and logging industries.

During World War II, the Aleutian Islands Campaign focused on the three outer Aleutian Islands – Attu, Agattu and Kiska^[38] – that were invaded by Japanese troops and occupied between June 1942 and August 1943. During the occupation, one Aleut civilian was killed by Japanese troops and nearly fifty were interned in Japan, where about half of them died.^{[citation needed]}Unalaska/Dutch Harbor became a significant base for the United States Army Air Forces and Navysubmariners.

The United States Lend-Lease program involved the flying of American warplanes through Canada to Fairbanks and then Nome; Soviet pilots took possession of these aircraft, ferrying them to fight the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The construction of military bases contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities.

Statehood

Statehood for Alaska was an important cause of James Wickersham early in his tenure as a congressional delegate. Decades later, the statehood movement gained its first real momentum following a territorial referendum in 1946. The Alaska Statehood Committee and Alaska's Constitutional Convention would soon follow. Statehood supporters also found themselves fighting major battles against political foes, mostly in the U.S. Congress but also within Alaska. Statehood was approved by Congress on July 7, 1958. Alaska was officially proclaimed a state on January 3, 1959.

In 1960, the Census Bureau reported Alaska's population as 77.2% White, 3% Black, and 18.8% American Indian and Alaska Native.^[39]

Good Friday earthquake

On March 27, 1964, the massive Good Friday earthquake killed 133 people and destroyed several villages and portions of large coastal communities, mainly by the resultant tsunamis and landslides. It was the second-most-powerful earthquake in the recorded history of the world, with a moment magnitude of 9.2. It was over one thousand times more powerful than the 1989 San Francisco earthquake. The time of day (5:36 pm), time of year and location of the epicenter were all cited as factors in potentially sparing thousands of lives, particularly in Anchorage.

Discovery of oil

The 1968 discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay and the 1977 completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System led to an oil boom. Royalty revenues from oil have funded large state budgets from 1980 onward. That same year, not coincidentally, Alaska repealed its state income tax.

In 1989, the Exxon Valdez hit a reef in the Prince William Sound, spilling over 11 million U.S. gallons (42 megaliters) of crude oil over 1,100 miles (1,800 km) of coastline. Today, the battle between philosophies of development and conservation is seen in the contentious debate over oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and the proposed Pebble Mine.

Alaska Heritage Resources Survey

The Alaska Heritage Resources Survey (AHRS) is a restricted inventory of all reported historic and prehistoric sites within the state of Alaska; it is maintained by the Office of History and Archaeology. The survey's inventory of cultural resources includes objects, structures, buildings, sites, districts, and travel ways, with a general provision that they are over 50 years old. As of January 31, 2012, over 35,000 sites have been reported.^[40]

Demographics

The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Alaska was 737,438 on July 1, 2018, a 3.83% increase since the 2010 United States Census.^[4]

In 2010, Alaska ranked as the 47th state by population, ahead of North Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming (and Washington, D.C.). Estimates show North Dakota ahead as of 2018.^[42] Alaska is the least densely populated state, and one of the most sparsely populated areas in the world, at 1.2 inhabitants per square mile (0.46/km²), with the next state, Wyoming, at 5.8 inhabitants per square mile (2.2/km²).^[43] Alaska is the largest U.S. state by area, and the tenth wealthiest (per capita income).^[44] As of November 2014, the state's unemployment rate was 6.6%.^[45]As of 2018, it is one of 14 U.S. states that still has only one telephone area code.^[46]

Race and ethnicity

According to the 2010 United States Census, Alaska, had a population of 710,231. In terms of race and ethnicity, the state was 66.7% White (64.1% Non-Hispanic White), 14.8% American Indian and Alaska Native, 5.4% Asian, 3.3% Black or African American, 1.0% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 1.6% from Some Other Race, and 7.3% from Two or More Races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race made up 5.5% of the population.^[47]

As of 2011, 50.7% of Alaska's population younger than one year of age belonged to minority groups (i.e., did not have two parents of non-Hispanic white ancestry).^[48]

Languages

According to the 2011 American Community Survey, 83.4% of people over the age of five spoke only English at home. About 3.5% spoke Spanish at home, 2.2% spoke another Indo-European language, about 4.3% spoke an Asian language (including Tagalog)^[52], and about 5.3% spoke other languages at home.^[53]

The Alaska Native Language Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks claims that at least 20 Alaskan native languages exist and there are also some languages with different dialects.^[54] Most of Alaska's native languages belong to either the Eskimo–Aleut or Na-Dene language families; however, some languages are thought to be isolates (e.g. Haida) or have not yet been classified (e.g. Tsimshianic).^[54] As of 2014 nearly all of Alaska's native languages were classified as either threatened, shifting, moribund, nearly extinct, or dormant languages.^[55]

A total of 5.2% of Alaskans speak one of the state's 20 indigenous languages,^[56] known locally as 'native languages'.

In October 2014, the governor of Alaska signed a bill declaring the state's 20 indigenous languages to have official status.^[57][58] This bill gave them symbolic recognition as official languages, though they have not been adopted for official use within the government. The 20 languages that were included in the bill are:

Religion

According to statistics collected by the Association of Religion Data Archives from 2010, about 34% of Alaska residents were members of religious congregations. 100,960 people identified as Evangelical Protestants, 50,866 as Roman Catholic, and 32,550 as mainline Protestants.^[59] Roughly 4% are Mormon, 0.5% are Jewish, 1% are Muslim, 0.5% are Buddhist, 0.2% are Bahá'í, and 0.5% are Hindu.^[60] The largest religious denominations in Alaska as of 2010 were the Catholic Church with 50,866 adherents, non-denominational Evangelical Protestants with 38,070 adherents, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 32,170 adherents, and the Southern Baptist Convention with 19,891 adherents.^[61] Alaska has been identified, along with Pacific Northwest states Washington and Oregon, as being the least religious states of the USA, in terms of church membership,^[62][63]

In 1795, the First Russian Orthodox Church was established in Kodiak. Intermarriage with Alaskan Natives helped the Russian immigrants integrate into society. As a result, an increasing number of Russian Orthodox churches gradually became established within Alaska.^[64] Alaska also has the largest Quaker population (by percentage) of any state.^[65] In 2009 there were 6,000 Jews in Alaska (for whom observance of halakhamay pose special problems).^[66] Alaskan Hindus often share venues and celebrations with members of other Asian religious communities, including Sikhs and Jains.^[67][68][69]

Estimates for the number of Muslims in Alaska range from 2,000 to 5,000.^[70][71][72] The Islamic Community Center of Anchorage began efforts in the late 1990s to construct a mosque in Anchorage. They broke ground on a building in south Anchorage in 2010 and were nearing completion in late 2014. When completed, the mosque will be the first in the state and one of the northernmost mosques in the world.^[73] There's also a Bahá'í Center.^[74]

Economy

The 2007 gross state product was $44.9 billion, 45th in the nation. Its per capita personal income for 2007 was $40,042, ranking 15th in the nation. According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Alaska had the fifth-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 6.75 percent.^[76] The oil and gas industry dominates the Alaskan economy, with more than 80% of the state's revenues derived from petroleum extraction. Alaska's main export product (excluding oil and natural gas) is seafood, primarily salmon, cod, Pollock and crab.

Agriculture represents a very small fraction of the Alaskan economy. Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock, dairy products, vegetables, and livestock. Manufacturing is limited, with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere.

Employment is primarily in government and industries such as natural resource extraction, shipping, and transportation. Military bases are a significant component of the economy in the Fairbanks North Star, Anchorage and Kodiak Island boroughs, as well as Kodiak. Federal subsidies are also an important part of the economy, allowing the state to keep taxes low. Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum, natural gas, coal, gold, precious metals, zinc and other mining, seafood processing, timber and wood products. There is also a growing service and tourism sector. Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging.

Energy

Alaska has vast energy resources, although its oil reserves have been largely depleted. Major oil and gas reserves were found in the Alaska North Slope (ANS) and Cook Inlet basins, but according to the Energy Information Administration, by February 2014 Alaska had fallen to fourth place in the nation in crude oil production after Texas, North Dakota, and California.^[77][78] Prudhoe Bay on Alaska's North Slope is still the second highest-yielding oil field in the United States, typically producing about 400,000 barrels per day (64,000 m³/d), although by early 2014 North Dakota's Bakken Formation was producing over 900,000 barrels per day (140,000 m³/d).^[79] Prudhoe Bay was the largest conventional oil field ever discovered in North America, but was much smaller than Canada's enormous Athabasca oil sands field, which by 2014 was producing about 1,500,000 barrels per day (240,000 m³/d) of unconventional oil, and had hundreds of years of producible reserves at that rate.^[80]

The Trans-Alaska Pipeline can transport and pump up to 2.1 million barrels (330,000 m³) of crude oil per day, more than any other crude oil pipeline in the United States. Additionally, substantial coal deposits are found in Alaska's bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite coal basins. The United States Geological Survey estimates that there are 85.4 trillion cubic feet (2,420 km³) of undiscovered, technically recoverable gas from natural gas hydrates on the Alaskan North Slope.^[81] Alaska also offers some of the highest hydroelectric power potential in the country from its numerous rivers. Large swaths of the Alaskan coastline offer wind and geothermal energy potential as well.^[82]

Alaska's economy depends heavily on increasingly expensive diesel fuel for heating, transportation, electric power and light. Although wind and hydroelectric power are abundant and underdeveloped, proposals for statewide energy systems (e.g. with special low-cost electric interties) were judged uneconomical (at the time of the report, 2001) due to low (less than 50¢/gal) fuel prices, long distances and low population.^[83] The cost of a gallon of gas in urban Alaska today is usually 30–60¢ higher than the national average; prices in rural areas are generally significantly higher but vary widely depending on transportation costs, seasonal usage peaks, nearby petroleum development infrastructure and many other factors.

Permanent Fund

The Alaska Permanent Fund is a constitutionally authorized appropriation of oil revenues, established by voters in 1976 to manage a surplus in state petroleum revenues from oil, largely in anticipation of the then recently constructed Trans-Alaska Pipeline System. The fund was originally proposed by Governor Keith Miller on the eve of the 1969 Prudhoe Bay lease sale, out of fear that the legislature would spend the entire proceeds of the sale (which amounted to $900 million) at once. It was later championed by Governor Jay Hammond and Kenaistate representative Hugh Malone. It has served as an attractive political prospect ever since, diverting revenues which would normally be deposited into the general fund.

The Alaska Constitution was written so as to discourage dedicating state funds for a particular purpose. The Permanent Fund has become the rare exception to this, mostly due to the political climate of distrust existing during the time of its creation. From its initial principal of $734,000, the fund has grown to $50 billion as a result of oil royalties and capital investment programs.^[84] Most if not all the principal is invested conservatively outside Alaska. This has led to frequent calls by Alaskan politicians for the Fund to make investments within Alaska, though such a stance has never gained momentum.

Starting in 1982, dividends from the fund's annual growth have been paid out each year to eligible Alaskans, ranging from an initial $1,000 in 1982 (equal to three years' payout, as the distribution of payments was held up in a lawsuit over the distribution scheme) to $3,269 in 2008 (which included a one-time $1,200 'Resource Rebate'). Every year, the state legislature takes out 8% from the earnings, puts 3% back into the principal for inflation proofing, and the remaining 5% is distributed to all qualifying Alaskans. To qualify for the Permanent Fund Dividend, one must have lived in the state for a minimum of 12 months, maintain constant residency subject to allowable absences,^[85] and not be subject to court judgments or criminal convictions which fall under various disqualifying classifications or may subject the payment amount to civil garnishment.

The Permanent Fund is often considered to be one of the leading examples of a 'Basic income' policy in the world.^[86]

Cost of living

The cost of goods in Alaska has long been higher than in the contiguous 48 states. Federal government employees, particularly United States Postal Service (USPS) workers and active-duty military members, receive a Cost of Living Allowance usually set at 25% of base pay because, while the cost of living has gone down, it is still one of the highest in the country.^{[citation needed]}

Rural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods compared to the rest of the country, due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure.^{[citation needed]}

Agriculture and fishing

Due to the northern climate and short growing season, relatively little farming occurs in Alaska. Most farms are in either the Matanuska Valley, about 40 miles (64 km) northeast of Anchorage, or on the Kenai Peninsula, about 60 miles (97 km) southwest of Anchorage. The short 100-day growing season limits the crops that can be grown, but the long sunny summer days make for productive growing seasons. The primary crops are potatoes, carrots, lettuce, and cabbage.

The Tanana Valley is another notable agricultural locus, especially the Delta Junction area, about 100 miles (160 km) southeast of Fairbanks, with a sizable concentration of farms growing agronomic crops; these farms mostly lie north and east of Fort Greely. This area was largely set aside and developed under a state program spearheaded by Hammond during his second term as governor. Delta-area crops consist predominantly of barley and hay. West of Fairbanks lies another concentration of small farms catering to restaurants, the hotel and tourist industry, and community-supported agriculture.

Alaskan agriculture has experienced a surge in growth of market gardeners, small farms and farmers' markets in recent years, with the highest percentage increase (46%) in the nation in growth in farmers' markets in 2011, compared to 17% nationwide.^[87] The peony industry has also taken off, as the growing season allows farmers to harvest during a gap in supply elsewhere in the world, thereby filling a niche in the flower market.^[88]

Alaska, with no counties, lacks county fairs. However, a small assortment of state and local fairs (with the Alaska State Fair in Palmer the largest), are held mostly in the late summer. The fairs are mostly located in communities with historic or current agricultural activity, and feature local farmers exhibiting produce in addition to more high-profile commercial activities such as carnival rides, concerts and food. 'Alaska Grown' is used as an agricultural slogan.

Alaska has an abundance of seafood, with the primary fisheries in the Bering Sea and the North Pacific. Seafood is one of the few food items that is often cheaper within the state than outside it. Many Alaskans take advantage of salmon seasons to harvest portions of their household diet while fishing for subsistence, as well as sport. This includes fish taken by hook, net or wheel.^[89]

Hunting for subsistence, primarily caribou, moose, and Dall sheep is still common in the state, particularly in remote Bush communities. An example of a traditional native food is Akutaq, the Eskimo ice cream, which can consist of reindeer fat, seal oil, dried fish meat and local berries.

Alaska's reindeer herding is concentrated on Seward Peninsula, where wild caribou can be prevented from mingling and migrating with the domesticated reindeer.^[90]

Most food in Alaska is transported into the state from 'Outside', and shipping costs make food in the cities relatively expensive. In rural areas, subsistence hunting and gathering is an essential activity because imported food is prohibitively expensive. Although most small towns and villages in Alaska lie along the coastline, the cost of importing food to remote villages can be high, because of the terrain and difficult road conditions, which change dramatically, due to varying climate and precipitation changes. The cost of transport can reach as high as 50¢ per pound ($1.10/kg) or more in some remote areas, during the most difficult times, if these locations can be reached at all during such inclement weather and terrain conditions. The cost of delivering a 1 US gallon (3.8 L) of milk is about $3.50 in many villages where per capita income can be $20,000 or less. Fuel cost per gallon is routinely 20–30¢ higher than the continental United States average, with only Hawaii having higher prices.^[91][92]

Transportation

Roads

Alaska has few road connections compared to the rest of the U.S. The state's road system covers a relatively small area of the state, linking the central population centers and the Alaska Highway, the principal route out of the state through Canada. The state capital, Juneau, is not accessible by road, only a car ferry, which has spurred several debates over the decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system, or building a road connection from Haines. The western part of Alaska has no road system connecting the communities with the rest of Alaska.

The Interstate Highways in Alaska consists of a total of 1082 miles. One unique feature of the Alaska Highway system is the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel, an active Alaska Railroad tunnel recently upgraded to provide a paved roadway link with the isolated community of Whittier on Prince William Sound to the Seward Highway about 50 miles (80 km) southeast of Anchorage at Portage. At 2.5 miles (4.0 km), the tunnel was the longest road tunnel in North America until 2007.^[93] The tunnel is the longest combination road and rail tunnel in North America.

Rail

Built around 1915, the Alaska Railroad (ARR) played a key role in the development of Alaska through the 20th century. It links north Pacific shipping through providing critical infrastructure with tracks that run from Seward to Interior Alaska by way of South Central Alaska, passing through Anchorage, Eklutna, Wasilla, Talkeetna, Denali, and Fairbanks, with spurs to Whittier, Palmer and North Pole. The cities, towns, villages, and region served by ARR tracks are known statewide as 'The Railbelt'. In recent years, the ever-improving paved highway system began to eclipse the railroad's importance in Alaska's economy.

The railroad played a vital role in Alaska's development, moving freight into Alaska while transporting natural resources southward (i.e., coal from the Usibelli coal mine near Healy to Seward and gravel from the Matanuska Valley to Anchorage). It is well known for its summertime tour passenger service.

The Alaska Railroad was one of the last railroads in North America to use cabooses in regular service and still uses them on some gravel trains. It continues to offer one of the last flag stop routes in the country. A stretch of about 60 miles (100 km) of track along an area north of Talkeetna remains inaccessible by road; the railroad provides the only transportation to rural homes and cabins in the area. Until construction of the Parks Highway in the 1970s, the railroad provided the only land access to most of the region along its entire route.

In northern Southeast Alaska, the White Pass and Yukon Route also partly runs through the state from Skagway northwards into Canada (British Columbia and Yukon Territory), crossing the border at White Pass Summit. This line is now mainly used by tourists, often arriving by cruise liner at Skagway. It was featured in the 1983 BBC television series Great Little Railways.

The Alaska Rail network is not connected to Outside. (The nearest link to the North American railway network is the northwest terminus of the Canadian National Railway at Prince Rupert, British Columbia, several hundred miles to the southeast.) In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized $6 million to study the feasibility of a rail link between Alaska, Canada, and the lower 48.^[94][95][96]

Alaska Rail Marine provides car float service between Whittier and Seattle.

Marine transport

Many cities, towns and villages in the state do not have road or highway access; the only modes of access involve travel by air, river, or the sea.

Alaska's well-developed state-owned ferry system (known as the Alaska Marine Highway) serves the cities of southeast, the Gulf Coast and the Alaska Peninsula. The ferries transport vehicles as well as passengers. The system also operates a ferry service from Bellingham, Washington and Prince Rupert, British Columbia, in Canada through the Inside Passage to Skagway. The Inter-Island Ferry Authority also serves as an important marine link for many communities in the Prince of Wales Island region of Southeast and works in concert with the Alaska Marine Highway.

In recent years, cruise lines have created a summertime tourism market, mainly connecting the Pacific Northwest to Southeast Alaska and, to a lesser degree, towns along Alaska's gulf coast. The population of Ketchikan may rise by over 10,000 people on many days during the summer, as up to four large cruise ships at a time can dock, debarking thousands of passengers.

Air transport

Cities not served by road, sea, or river can be reached only by air, foot, dogsled, or snowmachine, accounting for Alaska's extremely well developed bush air services—an Alaskan novelty. Anchorage and, to a lesser extent Fairbanks, is served by many major airlines. Because of limited highway access, air travel remains the most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state. Anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism (in 2012–2013, Alaska received almost 2 million visitors).^[97]

Regular flights to most villages and towns within the state that are commercially viable are challenging to provide, so they are heavily subsidized by the federal government through the Essential Air Service program. Alaska Airlines is the only major airline offering in-state travel with jet service (sometimes in combination cargo and passenger Boeing 737-400s) from Anchorage and Fairbanks to regional hubs like Bethel, Nome, Kotzebue, Dillingham, Kodiak, and other larger communities as well as to major Southeast and Alaska Peninsula communities.

The bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines such as Ravn Alaska, PenAir, and Frontier Flying Service. The smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the Cessna Caravan, the most popular aircraft in use in the state. Much of this service can be attributed to the Alaska bypass mail program which subsidizes bulk mail delivery to Alaskan rural communities. The program requires 70% of that subsidy to go to carriers who offer passenger service to the communities.

Many communities have small air taxi services. These operations originated from the demand for customized transport to remote areas. Perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the bush seaplane. The world's busiest seaplane base is Lake Hood, located next to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers, cargo, and many items from stores and warehouse clubs. In 2006 Alaska had the highest number of pilots per capita of any U.S. state.^[98]

Other transport

Another Alaskan transportation method is the dogsled. In modern times (that is, any time after the mid-late 1920s), dog mushing is more of a sport than a true means of transportation. Various races are held around the state, but the best known is the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, a 1,150-mile (1,850 km) trail from Anchorage to Nome (although the distance varies from year to year, the official distance is set at 1,049 miles or 1,688 km). The race commemorates the famous 1925 serum run to Nome in which mushers and dogs like Togo and Balto took much-needed medicine to the diphtheria-stricken community of Nome when all other means of transportation had failed. Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash, prizes, and prestige. The 'Serum Run' is another sled dog race that more accurately follows the route of the famous 1925 relay, leaving from the community of Nenana (southwest of Fairbanks) to Nome.^[99]

In areas not served by road or rail, primary transportation in summer is by all-terrain vehicle and in winter by snowmobile or 'snow machine', as it is commonly referred to in Alaska.^[100]

Data transport

Alaska's internet and other data transport systems are provided largely through the two major telecommunications companies: GCI and Alaska Communications. GCI owns and operates what it calls the Alaska United Fiber Optic system^[101] and as of late 2011 Alaska Communications advertised that it has 'two fiber optic paths to the lower 48 and two more across Alaska.^[102] In January 2011, it was reported that a $1 billion project to connect Asia and rural Alaska was being planned, aided in part by $350 million in stimulus from the federal government.^[103]

Law and government

State government

Like all other U.S. states, Alaska is governed as a republic, with three branches of government: an executive branch consisting of the governor of Alaska and his or her appointees which head executive departments; a legislative branch consisting of the Alaska House of Representatives and Alaska Senate; and a judicial branch consisting of the Alaska Supreme Court and lower courts.

The state of Alaska employs approximately 16,000 people statewide.^[104]

The Alaska Legislature consists of a 40-member House of Representatives and a 20-member Senate. Senators serve four-year terms and House members two. The governor of Alaska serves four-year terms. The lieutenant governor runs separately from the governor in the primaries, but during the general election, the nominee for governor and nominee for lieutenant governor run together on the same ticket.

Alaska's court system has four levels: the Alaska Supreme Court, the Alaska Court of Appeals, the superior courts and the district courts.^[105] The superior and district courts are trial courts. Superior courts are courts of general jurisdiction, while district courts only hear certain types of cases, including misdemeanor criminal cases and civil cases valued up to $100,000.^[105]

The Supreme Court and the Court of Appeals are appellate courts. The Court of Appeals is required to hear appeals from certain lower-court decisions, including those regarding criminal prosecutions, juvenile delinquency, and habeas corpus.^[105] The Supreme Court hears civil appeals and may in its discretion hear criminal appeals.^[105]

State politics

Although in its early years of statehood Alaska was a Democratic state, since the early 1970s it has been characterized as Republican-leaning.^[107] Local political communities have often worked on issues related to land use development, fishing, tourism, and individual rights. Alaska Natives, while organized in and around their communities, have been active within the Native corporations. These have been given ownership over large tracts of land, which require stewardship.

Alaska was formerly the only state in which possession of one ounce or less of marijuana in one's home was completely legal under state law, though the federal law remains in force.^[108]

The state has an independence movement favoring a vote on secession from the United States, with the Alaskan Independence Party.^[109]

Six Republicans and four Democrats have served as governor of Alaska. In addition, Republican governor Wally Hickel was elected to the office for a second term in 1990 after leaving the Republican party and briefly joining the Alaskan Independence Party ticket just long enough to be reelected. He officially rejoined the Republican party in 1994.

Alaska's voter initiative making marijuana legal took effect on February 24, 2015, placing Alaska alongside Colorado and Washington as the first three U.S. states where recreational marijuana is legal. The new law means people over age 21 can consume small amounts of pot – if they can find it. There is a rather lengthy and involved application process, per Alaska Measure 2 (2014).^[110] The first legal marijuana store opened in Valdez in October 2016.^[111]

Taxes

To finance state government operations, Alaska depends primarily on petroleum revenues and federal subsidies. This allows it to have the lowest individual tax burden in the United States.^[112] It is one of five states with no state sales tax, one of seven states that do not levy an individual income tax, and one of the two states that has neither (New Hampshire is the other one)^[113] The Department of Revenue Tax Division^[114] reports regularly on the state's revenue sources. The Department also issues an annual summary of its operations, including new state laws that directly affect the tax division.

While Alaska has no state sales tax, 89 municipalities collect a local sales tax, from 1.0–7.5%, typically 3–5%. Other local taxes levied include raw fish taxes, hotel, motel, and bed-and-breakfast 'bed' taxes, severance taxes, liquor and tobacco taxes, gaming (pull tabs) taxes, tire taxes and fuel transfer taxes. A part of the revenue collected from certain state taxes and license fees (such as petroleum, aviation motor fuel, telephone cooperative) is shared with municipalities in Alaska.

Fairbanks has one of the highest property taxes in the state as no sales or income taxes are assessed in the Fairbanks North Star Borough (FNSB). A sales tax for the FNSB has been voted on many times, but has yet to be approved, leading lawmakers to increase taxes dramatically on goods such as liquor and tobacco.

In 2014 the Tax Foundation ranked Alaska as having the fourth most 'business friendly' tax policy, behind only Wyoming, South Dakota, and Nevada.^[115]

Federal politics

Alaska regularly supports Republicans in presidential elections and has done so since statehood. Republicans have won the state's electoral college votes in all but one election that it has participated in (1964). No state has voted for a Democratic presidential candidate fewer times. Alaska was carried by Democratic nominee Lyndon B. Johnson during his landslide election in 1964, while the 1960 and 1968 elections were close. Since 1972, however, Republicans have carried the state by large margins. In 2008, Republican John McCain defeated Democrat Barack Obama in Alaska, 59.49% to 37.83%. McCain's running mate was Sarah Palin, the state's governor and the first Alaskan on a major party ticket. Obama lost Alaska again in 2012, but he captured 40% of the state's vote in that election, making him the first Democrat to do so since 1968.

The Alaska Bush, central Juneau, midtown and downtown Anchorage, and the areas surrounding the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus and Ester have been strongholds of the Democratic Party. The Matanuska-Susitna Borough, the majority of Fairbanks (including North Pole and the military base), and South Anchorage typically have the strongest Republican showing. As of 2004, well over half of all registered voters have chosen 'Non-Partisan' or 'Undeclared' as their affiliation,^[116] despite recent attempts to close primaries to unaffiliated voters.

Because of its population relative to other U.S. states, Alaska has only one member in the U.S. House of Representatives. This seat is held by Republican Don Young, who was re-elected to his 21st consecutive term in 2012. Alaska's at-large congressional district is one of the largest parliamentary constituencies in the world by area.

In 2008, Governor Sarah Palin became the first Republican woman to run on a national ticket when she became John McCain's running mate. She continued to be a prominent national figure even after resigning from the governor's job in July 2009.^[118]

Alaska's United States senators belong to Class 2 and Class 3. In 2008, Democrat Mark Begich, mayor of Anchorage, defeated long-time Republican senator Ted Stevens. Stevens had been convicted on seven felony counts of failing to report gifts on Senate financial discloser forms one week before the election. The conviction was set aside in April 2009 after evidence of prosecutorial misconduct emerged.

Republican Frank Murkowski held the state's other senatorial position. After being elected governor in 2002, he resigned from the Senate and appointed his daughter, State representative Lisa Murkowski as his successor. She won full six-year terms in 2004, 2010 and 2016.

• Alaska's current statewide elected officials

• Mike Dunleavy, Governor

• Lisa Murkowski, senior United States Senator

• Dan Sullivan, junior United States Senator

• Don Young, United States Representative

Cities, towns and boroughs

Alaska is not divided into counties, as most of the other U.S. states, but it is divided into boroughs.^[119] Many of the more densely populated parts of the state are part of Alaska's 16 boroughs, which function somewhat similarly to counties in other states. However, unlike county-equivalents in the other 49 states, the boroughs do not cover the entire land area of the state. The area not part of any borough is referred to as the Unorganized Borough.

The Unorganized Borough has no government of its own, but the U.S. Census Bureau in cooperation with the state divided the Unorganized Borough into 11 census areas solely for the purposes of statistical analysis and presentation.^{[citation needed]} A recording district is a mechanism for administration of the public record in Alaska. The state is divided into 34 recording districts which are centrally administered under a State Recorder. All recording districts use the same acceptance criteria, fee schedule, etc., for accepting documents into the public record.^{[citation needed]}

Whereas many U.S. states use a three-tiered system of decentralization—state/county/township—most of Alaska uses only two tiers—state/borough. Owing to the low population density, most of the land is located in the Unorganized Borough. As the name implies, it has no intermediate borough government but is administered directly by the state government. In 2000, 57.71% of Alaska's area has this status, with 13.05% of the population.^{[citation needed]}

Anchorage merged the city government with the Greater Anchorage Area Borough in 1975 to form the Municipality of Anchorage, containing the city proper and the communities of Eagle River, Chugiak, Peters Creek, Girdwood, Bird, and Indian. Fairbanks has a separate borough (the Fairbanks North Star Borough) and municipality (the City of Fairbanks).^{[citation needed]}

The state's most populous city is Anchorage, home to 278,700 people in 2006, 225,744 of whom live in the urbanized area. The richest location in Alaska by per capita income is Halibut Cove ($89,895).^{[citation needed]}Yakutat City, Sitka, Juneau, and Anchorage are the four largest cities in the U.S. by area.

Cities and census-designated places (by population)

As reflected in the 2010 United States Census, Alaska has a total of 355 incorporated cities and census-designated places (CDPs).^{[citation needed]} The tally of cities includes four unified municipalities, essentially the equivalent of a consolidated city–county. The majority of these communities are located in the rural expanse of Alaska known as 'The Bush' and are unconnected to the contiguous North American road network. The table at the bottom of this section lists the 100 largest cities and census-designated places in Alaska, in population order.

Of Alaska's 2010 Census population figure of 710,231, 20,429 people, or 2.88% of the population, did not live in an incorporated city or census-designated place. Approximately three-quarters of that figure were people who live in urban and suburban neighborhoods on the outskirts of the city limits of Ketchikan, Kodiak, Palmer and Wasilla.^{[citation needed]} CDPs have not been established for these areas by the United States Census Bureau, except that seven CDPs were established for the Ketchikan-area neighborhoods in the 1980 Census (Clover Pass, Herring Cove, Ketchikan East, Mountain Point, North Tongass Highway, Pennock Island and Saxman East), but have not been used since. The remaining population was scattered throughout Alaska, both within organized boroughs and in the Unorganized Borough, in largely remote areas.^{[citation needed]}

Education

The Alaska Department of Education and Early Development administers many school districts in Alaska. In addition, the state operates a boarding school, Mt. Edgecumbe High School in Sitka, and provides partial funding for other boarding schools, including Nenana Student Living Center in Nenana and The Galena Interior Learning Academy in Galena.^[120]

There are more than a dozen colleges and universities in Alaska. Accredited universities in Alaska include the University of Alaska Anchorage, University of Alaska Fairbanks, University of Alaska Southeast, and Alaska Pacific University.^[121] Alaska is the only state that has no institutions that are part of NCAADivision I.

The Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development operates AVTEC, Alaska's Institute of Technology.^[122] Campuses in Seward and Anchorage offer 1 week to 11-month training programs in areas as diverse as Information Technology, Welding, Nursing, and Mechanics.

Alaska has had a problem with a 'brain drain'. Many of its young people, including most of the highest academic achievers, leave the state after high school graduation and do not return. As of 2013, Alaska did not have a law school or medical school.^[123] The University of Alaska has attempted to combat this by offering partial four-year scholarships to the top 10% of Alaska high school graduates, via the Alaska Scholars Program.^[124]

Public health and public safety

The Alaska State Troopers are Alaska's statewide police force. They have a long and storied history, but were not an official organization until 1941. Before the force was officially organized, law enforcement in Alaska was handled by various federal agencies. Larger towns usually have their own local police and some villages rely on 'Public Safety Officers' who have police training but do not carry firearms. In much of the state, the troopers serve as the only police force available. In addition to enforcing traffic and criminal law, wildlife Troopers enforce hunting and fishing regulations. Due to the varied terrain and wide scope of the Troopers' duties, they employ a wide variety of land, air, and water patrol vehicles.

Many rural communities in Alaska are considered 'dry', having outlawed the importation of alcoholic beverages.^[125] Suicide rates for rural residents are higher than urban.^[126]

Domestic abuse and other violent crimes are also at high levels in the state; this is in part linked to alcohol abuse.^[127] Alaska has the highest rate of sexual assault in the nation, especially in rural areas. The average age of sexually assaulted victims is 16 years old. In four out of five cases, the suspects were relatives, friends or acquaintances.^[128]

Culture

Some of Alaska's popular annual events are the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race that starts in Anchorage and ends in Nome, World Ice Art Championships in Fairbanks, the Blueberry Festival and Alaska Hummingbird Festival in Ketchikan, the Sitka Whale Fest, and the Stikine River Garnet Fest in Wrangell. The Stikine River attracts the largest springtime concentration of American bald eagles in the world.

The Alaska Native Heritage Center celebrates the rich heritage of Alaska's 11 cultural groups. Their purpose is to encourage cross-cultural exchanges among all people and enhance self-esteem among Native people. The Alaska Native Arts Foundation promotes and markets Native art from all regions and cultures in the State, using the internet.^[129]

Music

Influences on music in Alaska include the traditional music of Alaska Natives as well as folk music brought by later immigrants from Russia and Europe. Prominent musicians from Alaska include singer Jewel, traditional Aleut flautist Mary Youngblood, folk singer-songwriter Libby Roderick, Christian music singer-songwriter Lincoln Brewster, metal/post hardcore band 36 Crazyfists and the groups Pamyua and Portugal. The Man.

There are many established music festivals in Alaska, including the Alaska Folk Festival, the Fairbanks Summer Arts Festival, the Anchorage Folk Festival, the Athabascan Old-Time Fiddling Festival, the Sitka Jazz Festival, and the Sitka Summer Music Festival. The most prominent orchestra in Alaska is the Anchorage Symphony Orchestra, though the Fairbanks Symphony Orchestra and Juneau Symphony are also notable. The Anchorage Opera is currently the state's only professional opera company, though there are several volunteer and semi-professional organizations in the state as well.

The official state song of Alaska is 'Alaska's Flag', which was adopted in 1955; it celebrates the flag of Alaska.

Alaska in film and on television

Alaska's first independent picture entirely made in Alaska was The Chechahcos, produced by Alaskan businessman Austin E. Lathrop and filmed in and around Anchorage. Released in 1924 by the Alaska Moving Picture Corporation, it was the only film the company made.

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One of the most prominent movies filmed in Alaska is MGM's Eskimo/Mala The Magnificent, starring Alaska Native Ray Mala. In 1932 an expedition set out from MGM's studios in Hollywood to Alaska to film what was then billed as 'The Biggest Picture Ever Made'. Upon arriving in Alaska, they set up 'Camp Hollywood' in Northwest Alaska, where they lived during the duration of the filming. Louis B. Mayer spared no expense in spite of the remote location, going so far as to hire the chef from the Hotel Roosevelt in Hollywood to prepare meals.

When Eskimo premiered at the Astor Theatre in New York City, the studio received the largest amount of feedback in its history to that point. Eskimo was critically acclaimed and released worldwide; as a result, Mala became an international movie star. Eskimo won the first Oscar for Best Film Editing at the Academy Awards, and showcased and preserved aspects of Inupiat culture on film.

The 1983 Disney movie Never Cry Wolf was at least partially shot in Alaska. The 1991 film White Fang, based on Jack London's novel and starring Ethan Hawke, was filmed in and around Haines. Steven Seagal's 1994 On Deadly Ground, starring Michael Caine, was filmed in part at the Worthington Glacier near Valdez.^[130] The 1999 John Sayles film Limbo, starring David Strathairn, Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio, and Kris Kristofferson, was filmed in Juneau.

The psychological thriller Insomnia, starring Al Pacino and Robin Williams, was shot in Canada, but was set in Alaska. The 2007 film directed by Sean Penn, Into The Wild, was partially filmed and set in Alaska. The film, which is based on the novel of the same name, follows the adventures of Christopher McCandless, who died in a remote abandoned bus along the Stampede Trail west of Healy in 1992.

Many films and television shows set in Alaska are not filmed there; for example, Northern Exposure, set in the fictional town of Cicely, Alaska, was filmed in Roslyn, Washington. The 2007 horror feature 30 Days of Night is set in Barrow, Alaska^{[note 1]}, but was filmed in New Zealand.

Many reality television shows are filmed in Alaska. In 2011 the Anchorage Daily News found ten set in the state.^[131]

State symbols

• State motto: North to the Future
• Nicknames: 'The Last Frontier' or 'Land of the Midnight Sun' or 'Seward's Icebox'
• State bird: willow ptarmigan, adopted by the Territorial Legislature in 1955. It is a small (15–17 in or 380–430 mm) Arctic grouse that lives among willows and on open tundra and muskeg. Plumage is brown in summer, changing to white in winter. The willow ptarmigan is common in much of Alaska.
• State fish: king salmon, adopted 1962.
• State flower: wild/native forget-me-not, adopted by the Territorial Legislature in 1917.^[132] It is a perennial that is found throughout Alaska, from Hyder to the Arctic Coast, and west to the Aleutians.
• State fossil: woolly mammoth, adopted 1986.
• State gem: jade, adopted 1968.
• State insect: four-spot skimmer dragonfly, adopted 1995.
• State land mammal: moose, adopted 1998.
• State marine mammal: bowhead whale, adopted 1983.
• State mineral: gold, adopted 1968.
• State song: 'Alaska's Flag'
• State sport: dog mushing, adopted 1972.
• State tree: Sitka spruce, adopted 1962.
• State dog: Alaskan Malamute, adopted 2010.^[133]
• State soil: Tanana,^[134] adopted unknown.

See also

• Outline of Alaska – organized list of topics about Alaska

Notes

1. ^Byron Mallott, the Democratic gubernatorial nominee, suspended his campaign and became the running mate of Bill Walker, an independent who left the Republican Party. They won the election with 48.1% or 134,658 votes.

References

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2. ^'Elevations and Distances in the United States'. United States Geological Survey. 2001. Archived from the original on October 15, 2011. Retrieved October 21, 2011.
3. ^'Median Annual Household Income'. The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved January 27, 2018.
4. ^ ^abc'QuickFacts Alaska; United States'. 2018 Population Estimates. United States Census Bureau, Population Division. March 14, 2019. Retrieved March 14, 2019.
5. ^Video: 49th Star. Alaska Statehood, New Flag, Official, 1959/01/05 (1959). Universal Newsreel. 1959. Retrieved February 20, 2012.
6. ^Bergsland, Knut, ed. (1994). Aleut Dictionary: Unangam Tunudgusii. Alaska Native Language Center. ISBN978-1-55500-047-9., at pp. 49 (Alaxsxi-x = mainland Alaska), 50 (alagu-x = sea), 508 (-gi = suffix, object of its action).
7. ^Bright, William (2007). Native American Placenames in the United States. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN978-0806135984.
8. ^Ransom, J. Ellis. 1940. 'Derivation of the Word 'Alaska', ' American Anthropologist n.s., 42: pp. 550–551
9. ^'Facts About Alaska, Alaska Kids' Corner, State of Alaska'. alaska.gov. Retrieved April 13, 2018.
10. ^Benson, Carl (September 2, 1998). 'Alaska's Size in Perspective'. Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Archived from the original on November 25, 2007. Retrieved November 19, 2007.
11. ^'Travel Information on South Central Alaska'. 2006. Retrieved April 22, 2011.
12. ^'1927: When Ketchikan was the Largest City in Alaska'. Sitnews US. April 30, 2007. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
13. ^Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities. 'The Alaska Marine Highway System'(PDF). Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities. Archived from the original(PDF) on March 30, 2013. Retrieved April 21, 2012.
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External links

• Alaska at Curlie
• The short film Alaska (1967) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
• Geographic data related to Alaska at OpenStreetMap
• Who Owns/Manages Alaska? (map)

U.S. federal government

Alaska state government

• Alaska State Databases – Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Alaska state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association.

Star Trek is an American science fiction television series created by Gene Roddenberry that follows the adventures of the starship USS Enterprise(NCC-1701) and its crew. It later acquired the retronym of Star Trek: The Original Series (TOS) to distinguish the show within the media franchise that it began.

The show is set in the Milky Way galaxy, roughly during the 2260s. The ship and crew are led by Captain James T. Kirk (William Shatner), First Officer and Science Officer Spock (Leonard Nimoy), and Chief Medical Officer Leonard McCoy (DeForest Kelley). Shatner's voice-over introduction during each episode's opening credits stated the starship's purpose:

The series was produced from September 1966 to December 1967 by Norway Productions and Desilu Productions, and by Paramount Television from January 1968 to June 1969. Star Trek aired on NBC from September 8, 1966, to June 3, 1969,^[5] and was actually seen first on September 6, 1966, on Canada's CTV network.^[6]Star Trek's Nielsen ratings while on NBC were low, and the network canceled it after three seasons and 79 episodes. Several years later the series became a hit in broadcast syndication, remaining so throughout the 1970s, achieving cult classic status and a developing influence on popular culture. Star Trek eventually spawned a franchise, consisting of six television series, thirteen feature films, numerous books, games, and toys, and is now widely considered one of the most popular and influential television series of all time.^[7]

The series contains significant elements of Space Western, as described by Roddenberry and the general audience.^[8]

• 3Production
• 4Cast
• 5Season and episodes
• 7Music
• 9Distribution
• 10Merchandising
• 11Cultural influence

Creation[edit]

On March 11, 1964, Gene Roddenberry, a long-time fan of science fiction, drafted a short treatment for a science-fiction television series that he called Star Trek.^[9] This was to be set on board a large interstellar spaceship named S.S. Yorktown in the 23rd century^[10][11] bearing a crew dedicated to exploring the Milky WayGalaxy.

Roddenberry noted a number of influences on his idea, some of which includes A. E. van Vogt's tales of the spaceship Space Beagle, Eric Frank Russell's Marathon series of stories, and the film Forbidden Planet (1956). Some have also drawn parallels with the television series Rocky Jones, Space Ranger (1954), a space opera which included many of the elements that were integral to Star Trek—the organization, crew relationships, missions, part of the bridge layout, and some technology.^[7]:24 Roddenberry also drew heavily from C. S. Forester's Horatio Hornblower novels that depict a daring sea captain who exercises broad discretionary authority on distant sea missions of noble purpose. He often humorously referred to Captain Kirk as 'Horatio Hornblower in Space'.^[12]

Roddenberry had extensive experience in writing for series about the Old West that had been popular television fare in the 1950s and 1960s. Armed with this background, the first draft characterized the new show as 'Wagon Train to the stars.'^[9][13] Like the familiar Wagon Train, each episode was to be a self-contained adventure story, set within the structure of a continuing voyage through space. Most future television and movie realizations of the franchise adhered to the 'Wagon Train' paradigm of the continuing journey, with the notable exception of the serialized Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Star Trek: Discovery, and the third season of Star Trek: Enterprise.

In Roddenberry's original concept, the protagonist was Captain Robert April of the starship S.S. Yorktown. This character was developed into Captain Christopher Pike, first portrayed by Jeffrey Hunter. April is listed in the Star Trek Chronology, The Star Trek Encyclopedia and at startrek.com as the Enterprise's first commanding officer, preceding Captain Christopher Pike.^[14][15][16] The character's only television/movie appearance is in the Star Trek: The Animated Series episode 'The Counter-Clock Incident'^[17]

Development[edit]

In April 1964, Roddenberry presented the Star Trek draft to Desilu Productions, a leading independent television production company.^[18] He met with Herbert F. Solow, Desilu's Director of Production. Solow saw promise in the idea and signed a three-year program-development contract with Roddenberry.^[19]Lucille Ball, head of Desilu, was not familiar with the nature of the project, but she was instrumental in getting the pilot produced.^[20]

The idea was extensively revised and fleshed out during this time – 'The Cage' pilot filmed in late 1964 differs in many respects from the March 1964 treatment. Solow, for example, added the 'stardate' concept.^[19]

Desilu Productions had a first look deal with CBS.^[21] Oscar Katz, Desilu's Vice President of Production, went with Roddenberry to pitch the series to the network.^[22] They refused to purchase the show, as they already had a similar show in development, the 1965 Irwin Allen series Lost in Space.^[23]

In May 1964, Solow, who had previously worked at NBC, met with Grant Tinker, then head of the network's West Coast programming department. Tinker commissioned the first pilot – which became 'The Cage'.^[18][24] NBC turned down the resulting pilot, stating that it was 'too cerebral'.^[25] However, the NBC executives were still impressed with the concept, and they understood that its perceived faults had been partly because of the script that they had selected themselves.^[12]

NBC made the unusual decision to pay for a second pilot, using the script called 'Where No Man Has Gone Before'.^[25] Only the character of Spock, played by Leonard Nimoy, was retained from the first pilot, and only two cast members, Majel Barrett and Nimoy, were carried forward into the series. This second pilot proved to be satisfactory to NBC, and the network selected Star Trek to be in its upcoming television schedule for the fall of 1966.

The second pilot introduced most of the other main characters: Captain Kirk (William Shatner), Chief Engineer Lt. Commander Scott (James Doohan) and Lt. Sulu (George Takei), who served as a physicist on the ship in the second pilot but subsequently became a helmsman throughout the rest of the series. Paul Fix played Dr. Mark Piper in the second pilot; ship's doctor Leonard McCoy (DeForest Kelley) joined the cast when filming began for the first season, and he remained for the rest of the series, achieving billing as the third star of the series. Also joining the ship's permanent crew during the first season were the communications officer, Lt. Nyota Uhura (Nichelle Nichols), the first African-American woman to hold such an important role in an American television series;^[26] the captain's yeoman, Janice Rand (Grace Lee Whitney), who departed midway through the first season; and Christine Chapel (Majel Barrett), the ship's Nurse and assistant to McCoy. Walter Koenig joined the cast as Ensign Pavel Chekov in the series' second season.

In February 1966, before the first episode was aired, Star Trek was nearly canceled by Desilu Productions. Desilu had gone from making just one half-hour show (The Lucy Show) to deficit-financing a portion of two expensive hour-long shows, Mission: Impossible and Star Trek.^[27] Solow was able to convince Lucille Ball that both shows should continue.^[21]

Production[edit]

Once the series had been picked up by NBC, the production moved to what was then Desilu Productions' Gower street location. It had previously been the main studio complex used by RKO Pictures, and is now part of the Paramount Pictures lot. The series used what are now stages 31 and 32.^[21] The show's production staff included art director Matt Jefferies. Jefferies designed the starship Enterprise and most of its interiors.^[28] His contributions to the series were honored in the name of the 'Jefferies tube', an equipment shaft depicted in various Star Trek series. In addition to working with his brother, John Jefferies, to create the hand-held phaser weapons of Star Trek, Jefferies also developed the set design for the bridge of the Enterprise (which was based on an earlier design by Pato Guzman). Jefferies used his practical experience as an airman during World War II and his knowledge of aircraft design to devise a sleek, functional and ergonomic bridge layout.

The costume designer for Star Trek, Bill Theiss, created the striking look of the Starfleet uniforms for the Enterprise, the costumes for female guest stars, and for various aliens, including the Klingons, Vulcans, Romulans, Tellarites, Andorians, and Gideonites among others.

Artist and sculptor Wah Chang, who had worked for Walt Disney Productions, was hired to design and manufacture props: he created the flip-open communicator, often credited as having influenced the configuration of the portable version of the cellular telephone.^[29] Chang also designed the portable sensing-recording-computing 'tricorder' device, and various fictitious devices for the starship's engineering crew and its sick bay. As the series progressed, he helped to create various memorable aliens, such as the Gorn and the Horta.

Season 1 (1966–1967)[edit]

NBC ordered 16 episodes of Star Trek, besides 'Where No Man Has Gone Before'.^[25] The first regular episode of Star Trek, 'The Man Trap',^[30] aired on Thursday, September 8, 1966 from 8:30 to 9:30 as part of an NBC 'sneak preview' block. Reviews were mixed; while The Philadelphia Inquirer and San Francisco Chronicle liked the new show, The New York Times and The Boston Globe were less favorable,^[31] and Variety predicted that it 'won't work', calling it 'an incredible and dreary mess of confusion and complexities'.^[32] Debuting against mostly reruns, Star Trek easily won its time slot with a 40.6 share.^[33] The following week against all-new programming, however, the show fell to second (29.4 share) behind CBS. It ranked 33rd (out of 94 programs) over the next two weeks, then the following two episodes ranked 51st in the ratings.^[34][35]

—M.P., Oswego, New York, February 20, 1967^[36]

Frederik Pohl, editor of Galaxy Science Fiction, wrote in February 1967 of his amazement that Star Trek's 'regular shows were just as good' as the early episodes that won an award at Tricon in September. Believing that the show would soon be canceled because of low ratings, he lamented that it 'made the mistake of appealing to a comparatively literate group', and urged readers to write letters to help save the show.^[37]Star Trek's first-season ratings would in earlier years likely have caused NBC to cancel the show. The network had pioneered research into viewers' demographic profiles in the early 1960s, however, and, by 1967, it and other networks increasingly considered such data when making decisions;^[38]:115 for example, CBS temporarily canceled Gunsmoke that year because it had too many older and too few younger viewers.^[31] Although Roddenberry later claimed that NBC was unaware of Star Trek's favorable demographics,^[39] awareness of Star Trek's 'quality' audience is what likely caused the network to retain the show after the first and second seasons.^[38]:115 NBC instead decided to order 10 more new episodes for the first season, and order a second season in March 1967.^[25][40] The network originally announced that the show would air at 7:30–8:30 pm Tuesday, but it was instead given an 8:30–9:30 pm Friday slot when the 1967–68 NBC schedule was released,^[41] making watching it difficult for the young viewers that the show most attracted.^[25]

Season 2 (1967–1968)[edit]

Star Trek's ratings continued to decline during the second season. Although Shatner expected the show to end after two seasons and began to prepare for other projects,^[42] NBC nonetheless may have never seriously considered canceling the show.^[43][31] As early as January 1968, the Associated Press reported that Star Trek's chances for renewal for a third season were 'excellent'. The show had better ratings for NBC than ABC's competing Hondo, and the competing CBS programs (#3 Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. and the first half-hour of the #12 CBS Friday Night Movie) were in the top 15 in the Nielsen ratings.^[43][44] Again, demographics helped Star Trek survive.^[38]:116 Contrary to popular belief among its fans, the show did not have a larger audience of young viewers than its competition while on NBC.^[31] The network's research did, however, indicate that Star Trek had a 'quality audience' including 'upper-income, better-educated males', and other NBC shows had lower overall ratings.^[38]:116[43] The show was unusual at the time in its serious discussion of contemporary societal issues in a futuristic context, unlike Lost in Space which was more 'campy' in nature.^[45]

—Norman Lunenfeld, NBC executive, on the mail trucks delivering Star Trek fans' letters^[46]

The enthusiasm of Star Trek's viewers surprised NBC.^[31] The network had already received 29,000 fan letters for the show during its first season, more than for any other except The Monkees.^[25] When rumors spread in late 1967 that Star Trek was at risk of cancellation, Roddenberry secretly began and funded an effort by Bjo Trimble, her husband John and other fans to persuade tens of thousands of viewers to write letters of support to save the program.^{[46][47]:377–394[48]} Using the 4,000 names on a mailing list for a science-fiction convention, the Trimbles asked fans to write to NBC and ask ten others to also do so.^[49]:128 NBC received almost 116,000 letters for the show between December 1967 and March 1968, including more than 52,000 in February alone;^[50][51][25] according to an NBC executive, the network received more than one million pieces of mail but only disclosed the 116,000 figure.^[46] Newspaper columnists encouraged readers to write letters to help save what one called 'the best science fiction show on the air'.^[52] More than 200 Caltech students marched to NBC's Burbank, California studio to support Star Trek in January 1968, carrying signs such as 'Draft Spock' and 'Vulcan Power'.^[53]Berkeley and MIT students organized similar protests in San Francisco and New York.^[52]

The letters supporting Star Trek, whose authors included New York State GovernorNelson Rockefeller,^[54] were different in both quantity and quality from most mail that television networks receive:

The show, according to the 6,000 letters it draws a week (more than any other in television), is watched by scientists, museum curators, psychiatrists, doctors, university professors and other highbrows. The Smithsonian Institution asked for a print of the show for its archives, the only show so honored.^[52]

In addition:

Much of the mail came from doctors, scientists, teachers, and other professional people, and was for the most part literate–and written on good stationery. And if there is anything a network wants almost as much as a high Nielsen ratings it is the prestige of a show that appeals to the upper middle class and high brow audiences.^[42]

—NBC announcer, March 1, 1968^[50][54][31]

NBC—which used such anecdotes in much of its publicity for the show—made the unusual decision to announce on television, after the episode 'The Omega Glory' on March 1, 1968, that the series had been renewed.^{[38]:116–117[54]} The announcement implied a request to stop writing,^[46] but instead caused fans to send letters of thanks in similar numbers.^[55]

Season 3 (1968–1969)[edit]

NBC at first planned to move Star Trek to Mondays for the show's third season, likely in hopes of increasing its audience after the enormous letter campaign that surprised the network.^[31] But in March 1968, NBC instead moved the show to 10:00 pm Friday night, an hour undesirable for its younger audience,^[48][56] so as not to conflict with the highly successful Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In on Monday evenings,^[57] from whose time slot Laugh-In producer George Schlatter had angrily demanded it not be rescheduled. In addition to the undesirable time slot, Star Trek was now being seen on only 181 of NBC's 210 affiliates.^[58]

Roddenberry was frustrated, and complained, 'If the network wants to kill us, it couldn't make a better move.'^[48] He attempted to persuade NBC to give Star Trek a better day and hour, but was not successful. As a result of this and his own growing exhaustion, he chose to withdraw from the stress of the daily production of Star Trek, though he remained nominally in charge as its 'executive producer'.^[59] Roddenberry reduced his direct involvement in Star Trek before the start of the 1968–69 television season, and was replaced by Fred Freiberger as the producer of the television series. NBC next reduced Star Trek's budget by a significant amount per episode, as the per-minute commercial price had dropped from $39,000 to $36,000 compared to the Season 2 time slot.^[60] This caused what many perceive as a significant decline in quality for the 1968–69 season. William Shatner felt that the main characters became increasingly compromised or exaggerated while being involved in growingly improbable story lines.^[61] Leonard Nimoy added that mercenary concerns came to predominate.^[62] Associate Producer Bob Justman, who left during the third season, says that the budget cuts caused the crew to become necessarily limited in the type of filming that could be done, such as outdoor work,^[63] with only one episode, 'The Paradise Syndrome', shot largely outdoors. Nichelle Nichols described the budget-cutting during the final year as an intentional effort to kill off Star Trek:

While NBC paid lip service to expanding Star Trek's audience, it [now] slashed our production budget until it was actually ten percent lower than it had been in our first season .. This is why in the third season you saw fewer outdoor location shots, for example. Top writers, top guest stars, top anything you needed was harder to come by. Thus, Star Trek's demise became a self-fulfilling prophecy. And I can assure you, that is exactly as it was meant to be.^[64]

The last day of filming for Star Trek was January 9, 1969,^[25] and after 79 episodes^[65] NBC canceled the show in February despite fans' attempt at another letter-writing campaign.^[31] One newspaper columnist advised a protesting viewer:

You Star Trek fans have fought the 'good fight,' but the show has been canceled and there's nothing to be done now.^[66]

In 2011, the decision to cancel Star Trek by NBC was ranked #4 on the TV Guide Network special, 25 Biggest TV Blunders 2.^[67]

Syndication[edit]

—'Students rate television', 1971^[68]

Although many of the third season's episodes were considered of poor quality, it gave Star Trek enough episodes for television syndication.^[69] Most shows require at least four seasons for syndication, because otherwise there are not enough episodes for daily stripping. Kaiser Broadcasting, however, purchased syndication rights for Star Trek during the first season for its stations in several large cities. The company arranged the unusual deal because it saw the show as effective counterprogramming against the Big Three networks' 6 pm evening news programs.^[70]:138[25] Paramount began advertising the reruns in trade press in March 1969;^[71] as Kaiser's ratings were good, other stations, such as WPIX in New York City and WKBS in Philadelphia, also purchased the episodes^[72]:91–92 for similar counterprogramming.^[38]:121

Through syndication, Star Trek found a larger audience than it had on NBC, becoming a cult classic.^{[73][70]:138–139} Airing the show in the late afternoon or early evening attracted many new viewers, often young.^[74] By 1970, Paramount's trade advertisements claimed that the show had significantly improved its stations' ratings,^[71] and the Los Angeles Times commented on Star Trek's ability to 'acquire the most enviable ratings in the syndication field'.^[38]:121 By 1972, what the Associated Press described as 'the show that won't die' aired in more than 100 American cities and 60 other countries; and more than 3,000 fans attended the first Star Trek convention in New York City in January 1972.^[75][74]

—Chicago Tribune, 1987^[76]

Fans of the show became increasingly organized, gathering at conventions to trade merchandise, meet actors from the show, and watch screenings of old episodes. Such fans came to be known as 'trekkies',^[73] who were noted (and often ridiculed) for their extreme devotion to the show and their encyclopedic knowledge of every episode.^[77] Unlike other syndicated reruns, prices for Star Trek rose, instead of falling, over time,^[38]:122 because fans enjoyed rewatching each episode many, often dozens of, times;^{[78][79][73][80]}People in 1977 stated that the show 'threatens to rerun until the universe crawls back into its little black hole'.^[81] By 1986, 17 years after entering syndication, Star Trek was the most popular syndicated series;^[82] by 1987, Paramount made $1 million from each episode;^[25] and by 1994, the reruns still aired in 94% of the United States.^[83]

From September 1 to December 24, 1998, the Sci-Fi Channel broadcast a 'Special Edition' of all The Original Series episodes in an expanded 90-minute format hosted by William Shatner. About 3–4 minutes of each episode that had been edited out of the syndicated shows for additional commercial time were restored for the 'Special Edition' broadcast. In addition to introductory and post-episode commentary by Shatner, the episodes included interviews with members of the regular production team and cast, writers, guest stars, and critics (titled as 'Star Trek Insights'). The episodes were broadcast in the original broadcast sequence, followed by 'The Cage', to which a full 105-minute segment was devoted. (For details on each episode's original airdate, see List of Star Trek: The Original Series episodes.) Leonard Nimoy hosted a second run from December 28, 1998 to March 24, 1999, but not all the episodes were broadcast because the show was abruptly canceled before completion.^{[citation needed][original research?]}

Remastered edition[edit]

In September 2006, CBS Paramount Domestic Television (now known as CBS Television Distribution, the current rights holders for the Star Trek television franchises) began syndication of an enhanced version of Star Trek: The Original Series in high definition with new CGI visual effects.^[84]

Under the direction of Star Trek producer David Rossi, who consulted with Mike and Denise Okuda, the visual and special effects were recreated to give Star Trek: The Original Series a more modern look. Special attention was given to such elements as the Enterprise, alien planets and their images depicted from space, planets seen from orbit, alien spacecraft, and technology such as computer readouts, viewscreen images, and phaser beams.

The restoration and enhancement was performed by CBS Digital. All live-action footage was scanned in high definition from its first-generation 35 mm film elements. While it was possible to retouch and remaster some visual effects, all new exterior ship, space and planet shots were recreated under the supervision of Emmy-nominated visual effects supervisor Niel Wray.

As noted in the 'making of' DVD feature, first-generation 'original camera negatives' were used for all live-action footage but not for external shots of the ship and planets. Notable changes include new space shots with a CGI Enterprise, and other new models (for example, a Gorn ship is shown in 'Arena'), redone matte background shots, and other minor touches such as tidying up viewscreens.

A small number of scenes were also recomposed, and sometimes new actors were placed into the background of shots.^[85] The opening theme music was also re-recorded in digital stereo.

The first episode to be released to syndication was 'Balance of Terror' on the weekend of September 16, 2006. Episodes were released at the rate of about one a week and broadcast in a 4:3 aspect ratio. Despite the HD remastering, CBS chose to deliver the broadcast syndication package in Standard Definition (SD TV). The HD format was made commercially available through Blu-ray, or by download such as iTunes, Netflix, and Xbox Live.^[86]

While the CGI shots were mastered in a 16:9 aspect ratio for future applications, they were initially broadcast in the U.S. and Canada – along with the live-action footage – in a 4:3 aspect ratio to respect the show's original composition. If the producers were to choose to reformat the entire show for the 16:9 ratio, live-action footage would be cropped, significantly reducing the height of the original image.

On July 26, 2007, CBS Home Entertainment (with distribution by Paramount Home Entertainment) announced that the remastered episodes of TOS would be released on an HD DVD/DVD hybrid format. Season 1 was released on November 20, 2007. Season 2 had been scheduled for release in the summer of 2008, but it was canceled when Toshiba (which had been helping finance the remastering of the show) pulled out of the HD DVD business.^[87] On August 5, 2008, the remastered Season 2 was released on DVD only.^[88] For this release, CBS and Paramount used discs without any disc art, making them look like the 'Season 1 Remastered' HD DVD/DVD combo discs, despite having content only on one side.^{[citation needed]} Season 3 was released on DVD only on November 18, 2008.^[89] On February 17, 2009, Paramount announced the Season 1 of TOS on Blu-ray Disc for a May release to coincide with the new feature film coming from Paramount.^[90] The second season was released in a seven disc set on Blu-ray in the U.S. on September 22, 2009.^[91] The third season was released on Blu-ray in the U.S. on December 15.^[92] With the release of the 'Alternate Realities' box set, remastered Original Series episodes were included in a multi-series compilation for the first time. It was unknown if future compilation releases would exclusively use the remastered episodes or not.^[93]

In region 2 and region 4, all three seasons of the remastered Original Series became available on DVD in the slimline edition (in the UK and Germany in steelbook editions) on April 27, 2009 as well as the first season in Blu-ray.^{[citation needed]}

Cast[edit]

While still casting the roles, Gene Roddenberry did not mandate Bones McCoy and Spock be male. According to Nichelle Nichols, 'They gave me a three-page script to read from that had three characters named Bones, Kirk and somebody called Spock, and they asked me if I would read for the role of Spock. When I looked at this great text, I said to myself, 'I'll take any one of these roles,' but I found the Spock character to be very interesting, and I asked them to tell me what she [Spock] was like.'^[94]

It was intended that Sulu's role be expanded in the second season, but owing to Takei's part in John Wayne's The Green Berets, he appeared in only half the season, his role being filled by Walter Koenig as the relatively young, mop-topped Russian navigator Ensign Pavel Chekov. When Takei returned, the two had to share a dressing room and a single episode script.^[95] The two appeared together at the Enterprise helm for the remainder of the series. There may be some truth to the unofficial story that the Soviet Union's newspaper Pravda complained that among the culturally diverse characters there were no Russians, seen as a personal slight to that country since the Soviet RussianYuri Gagarin had been the first man to make a spaceflight. Gene Roddenberry said in response that 'The Chekov thing was a major error on our part, and I'm still embarrassed by the fact we didn't include a Russian right from the beginning.'^[12] However, documentation from Desilu suggests that the intention was to introduce a character into Star Trek with more sex appeal to teenaged girls.^[12] Walter Koenig noted in the 2006 40th anniversary special of Star Trek: The Original Series that he doubted the rumor about Pravda, since Star Trek had never been shown on Soviet television. It has also been claimed that the former member of The Monkees, Davy Jones, was the model for Mr. Chekov.^[96]

In addition, the series frequently included characters (usually security personnel wearing red uniforms) who are killed or injured soon after their introduction. So prevalent was this plot device that it inspired the term 'redshirt' to denote a stock character whose sole purpose is to die violently in order to show the danger facing the main characters.

Characterizations[edit]

Star Trek made celebrities of its cast of largely unknown actors. Kelley had appeared in many films and television shows, but mostly in smaller roles that showcased him as a villain. Nimoy also had previous television and film experience but was not well known either. Nimoy had partnered previously with Shatner in a 1964 episode of The Man from U.N.C.L.E., 'The Project Strigas Affair,' and with Kelley (as a doctor) in a 1963 episode of The Virginian, 'Man of Violence,' both more than two years before Star Trek first aired. Before Star Trek, Shatner was well known in the trade, having appeared in several notable films, played Cyrano de Bergerac on Broadway, and even turned down the part of Dr. Kildare. However, when roles became sparse he took the regular job after Jeffrey Hunter's contract was not renewed. After the episodes aired, many performers found themselves typecast because of their defining roles in the show. (Star Trek: The Next Generation actor Michael Dorn stated in 1991, however: 'If what happened to the first cast is called being typecast, then I want to be typecast. Of course, they didn't get the jobs after Trek. But they are making their sixth movie. Name me someone else in television who has made six movies!')^[69]

The three main characters were Kirk, Spock, and McCoy, with writers often playing the different personalities off each other: Kirk was passionate and often aggressive, but with a sly sense of humor; Spock was coolly logical; and McCoy was sardonic, emotional, and illogical, but always compassionate. In many stories the three clashed, with Kirk forced to make a tough decision while Spock advocated the logical but sometimes callous path and McCoy (or 'Bones', as Kirk nicknamed him) insisted on doing whatever would cause the least harm. McCoy and Spock had a sparring relationship that masked their true affection and respect for each other, and their constant arguments became popular with viewers.^{[97]:153–154} The show so emphasized dialogue that writer and director Nicholas Meyer (involved with the Star Trek films) called it a radio drama, showing an episode to a film class without video to prove that the plot was still comprehensible.^[69]

The Spock character was at first rejected by network executives, who were apprehensive that his vaguely 'Satanic' appearance (with pointed ears and eyebrows) might prove upsetting to some viewers, and (according to Leonard Nimoy) they repeatedly urged Roddenberry to 'drop the Martian.' Roddenberry was also dismayed to discover that NBC's publicity department deliberately airbrushed out Spock's pointed ears and eyebrows from early publicity stills sent to network affiliates, because they feared that his 'demonic' appearance might offend potential buyers in the religiously conservative southern states. Spock, however, went on to become one of the most popular characters on the show, as did McCoy's impassioned country-doctor personality. Spock, in fact, became a sex symbol of sorts^[98]—something no one connected with the show had expected. Leonard Nimoy noted that the question of Spock's extraordinary sex appeal emerged 'almost any time I talked to someone in the press..I never give it a thought..to try to deal with the question of Mr. Spock as a sex symbol is silly.'^[99]

Characters' cameo appearances in later series[edit]

The sequel to the original series, Star Trek: The Next Generation, which premiered in 1987, was set about 100 years after the events of TOS. As that show and its spin-offs progressed, several TOS actors made appearances reprising their original characters:

• Leonard 'Bones' McCoy, now a crusty 137-year-old admiral and head of Starfleet's Medical Division, inspects the Enterprise-D before her first mission in 'Encounter at Farpoint,' briefly meeting the android officer Lt. Cdr. Data, telling him, 'Well, this is a new ship. But she's got the right name. Now, you remember that, you hear? .. You treat her like a lady, and she'll always bring you home.'
• Scotty, now chronologically 147 years old, but still only physically 72 years old after spending 75 years trapped in a transporter buffer, is rescued by the Enterprise-D crew and resumes his life in 'Relics.' Working along with Chief Engineer Geordi La Forge, Scotty uses some creative engineering to save the Enterprise. A grateful Captain Picard lends him a shuttlecraft indefinitely.
• Spock, now a Vulcan ambassador, goes underground in the Romulan Empire in hopes of fostering peaceful coexistence with the Federation and reunification with Vulcan society ('Unification, Parts I and II'). He also appears in the 2009 reboot film where his science vessel originated from the 24th century–era of TNG. He ends up stranded in the 23rd century of the film series, where he settles on new Vulcan; in the sequel film Star Trek Into Darkness, he is contacted by his younger self regarding the villainous Khan Noonien Singh.
• Sarek, Spock's father, continues to be an ambassador for the next century until his final mission during which he and Captain Picard mind-meld together because Sarek shows signs of Bendii Syndrome ('Sarek'). He later dies suffering from this affliction, but not before giving Captain Picard key information for locating his missing son ('Unification').
• James Kirk disappears in 2293 during the maiden voyage of the Enterprise-B as seen in the film Star Trek: Generations. However, 78 years later Kirk is recovered from The Nexus, an alternative plane of existence, by Enterprise-D Captain Jean-Luc Picard in the same film. Kirk's time in the 24th century is short however; he is killed while helping to defeat Dr. Tolian Soran.
• Kang, Koloth, and Kor, the three Klingons featured in 'Day of the Dove' (Kang), 'The Trouble with Tribbles' (Koloth) and 'Errand of Mercy' (Kor), continue to serve the Empire well into the 24th century. They appear in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode 'Blood Oath' in which Kang and Koloth are killed. Kor later appears in two more episodes: 'The Sword of Kahless' and finally in 'Once More Unto the Breach' where, fighting in the Dominion War, he dies honorably in battle. A younger version of Kang, from the era of Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, later appears in the Star Trek: Voyager episode 'Flashback'.
• Hikaru Sulu, promoted to captain of the USS Excelsior in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, reprises his role from that performance in the Star Trek: Voyager episode 'Flashback'. Janice Rand also appears in that same episode.
• Arne Darvin, the Klingon disguised as a human in 'The Trouble with Tribbles', appears in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode 'Trials and Tribble-ations' with the intent to return to Deep Space Station K7 in 2267 and assassinate Kirk, whom Darvin blamed for his disgrace in the Klingon Empire.

Besides the above examples, numerous non-canon novels and comic books have been published over the years in which The Original Series era crew are depicted in The Next Generation era, either through time-travel or other means. In addition, many actors who appeared on The Original Series later made guest appearances as different characters in later series, most notably Majel Barrett, who not only provided the voice for most Starfleet computers in episodes of every spin-off series (including a single appearance on Star Trek: Enterprise, where the computers normally did not speak at all), but also had the recurring role of Lwaxana Troi in The Next Generation and Deep Space Nine. Diana Muldaur, a guest star in the episodes 'Return to Tomorrow' and 'Is There in Truth No Beauty?' of the original Star Trek series, played series regular Dr. Katherine Pulaski in the second season of Star Trek: The Next Generation.

Notable guest appearances[edit]

Guest roles on the series have featured actors such as:

• Gary Lockwood and Sally Kellerman in 'Where No Man Has Gone Before';
• Diana Muldaur in 'Return to Tomorrow' and 'Is There in Truth No Beauty?';
• Ricardo Montalbán as Khan Noonien Singh in 'Space Seed'. He then reprised the role in the film Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan;
• Michael Ansara as Klingon commander Kang in 'Day of the Dove', reprising the role in the Deep Space Nine episode 'Blood Oath' and the Voyager episode 'Flashback';
• William Marshall in 'The Ultimate Computer';
• Julie Newmar in 'Friday's Child';
• Kim Darby and Michael J. Pollard in 'Miri';
• Robert Lansing and Teri Garr in 'Assignment: Earth';
• William Windom in 'The Doomsday Machine';
• John Colicos as the Klingon Commander Kor in 'Errand of Mercy,' reprising the role in three episodes of Deep Space Nine;
• Robert Walker Jr. in 'Charlie X';
• Lee Meriwether in 'That Which Survives';
• Roger C. Carmel in 'Mudd's Women' and 'I, Mudd';
• France Nuyen in 'Elaan of Troyius,' an appearance believed to be the first by a Vietnamese actress on American television.;^[100]
• Mark Lenard, the only actor to play members of three major non-human races, as the Romulan commander in 'Balance of Terror,' the Klingon Commander in Star Trek: The Motion Picture, and most notably as Spock's father Sarek in 'Journey to Babel,' reprising this role in the films Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, and Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, as well as in the TNG episodes 'Sarek' and 'Unification, Part 1';
• Jane Wyatt as Spock's mother Amanda Grayson in 'Journey to Babel,' reprising the role in the film Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home;
• Glenn Corbett and Elinor Donahue in 'Metamorphosis';
• Elisha Cook Jr. in 'Court Martial';
• Nancy Kovack in 'A Private Little War';
• Vic Tayback in 'A Piece of the Action';
• Jeff Corey and Fred Williamson in 'The Cloud Minders';
• Barbara Bouchet and Warren Stevens in 'By Any Other Name';
• Michael Forest in 'Who Mourns for Adonais?';
• Charles Napier in 'The Way to Eden';
• Frank Gorshin and Lou Antonio in 'Let That Be Your Last Battlefield';
• Ted Cassidy and Sherry Jackson in 'What Are Little Girls Made Of?'; Cassidy also appeared as the barbarian warrior in the original pilot The Cage, voiced the Balok mannequin in The Corbomite Maneuver, and voiced the Gorn in Arena;
• Mariette Hartley in 'All Our Yesterdays';
• Joan Collins in 'The City on the Edge of Forever';
• Celia Lovsky in 'Amok Time';
• David Soul in 'The Apple';
• James Gregory in 'Dagger of the Mind';
• Barbara Anderson in 'The Conscience of the King';
• James Daly in 'Requiem for Methuselah';
• Jill Ireland in 'This Side of Paradise';
• Melvin Belli in 'And the Children Shall Lead';
• Keye Luke and Yvonne Craig in 'Whom Gods Destroy';
• Michael Dunn in 'Plato's Stepchildren';
• Clint Howard in 'The Corbomite Maneuver';
• Barbara Luna in 'Mirror, Mirror';
• David Opatoshu in 'A Taste of Armageddon';
• Barbara Babcock in 'A Taste of Armageddon' and 'Plato's Stepchildren'. Her voice was also heard in 'The Squire of Gothos', 'Assignment: Earth', 'The Tholian Web' and 'The Lights of Zetar'.
• Morgan Woodward in 'Dagger of the Mind' and 'The Omega Glory';
• Arnold Moss as mysterious actor Anton Karidian, who proves to have originally been the tyrannical Governor Kodos of Tarsus IV in 'The Conscience of the King';
• Marianna Hill in 'Dagger of the Mind';
• Joanne Linville in 'The Enterprise Incident';
• Louise Sorel in 'Requiem for Methuselah';
• John Fiedler in 'Wolf in the Fold.'
• Vic Perrin in 'Mirror, Mirror.' His voice was also heard in 'The Menagerie', 'Arena' and 'The Changeling'.

Season and episodes[edit]

Seasons[edit]

Episode analysis[edit]

In its writing, Star Trek is notable as one of the earliest science-fiction TV series to use the services of leading contemporary science fiction writers, such as Robert Bloch, Norman Spinrad, Harlan Ellison, and Theodore Sturgeon, as well as established television writers. Series script editorDorothy C. Fontana (originally Roddenberry's secretary) played a key role in the success of Star Trek—she edited most of the series' scripts and wrote several episodes. Her credits read D.C. Fontana at the suggestion of Gene Roddenberry, who felt a female science fiction writer might not be taken seriously in the majority-male field.

Roddenberry often used the setting of a space vessel set many years in the future to comment on social issues of 1960s America, including sexism, racism, nationalism, and global war.^[48] In November 1968, just a few months after the first televised interracial touch, the episode 'Plato's Stepchildren' went incorrectly^[101] down in history as the first American television show to feature a scripted interracial kiss between characters (Capt. Kirk and Lt. Uhura), although the kiss was only mimed (obscured by the back of a character's head) and depicted as involuntary.^[102] 'Let That Be Your Last Battlefield' presented a direct allegory about the irrationality and futility of racism. Anti-war themes appear in episodes such as 'The Doomsday Machine', depicting a planet-destroying weapon as an analogy to nuclear weapons deployed under the principle of mutually assured destruction, and 'A Taste of Armageddon' about a society which has 'civilized' war to the point that they no longer see it as something to avoid.

Episodes such as 'The Apple', 'Who Mourns for Adonais?', 'The Mark of Gideon' and 'The Return of the Archons' display subtle anti-religious (owing mainly to Roddenberry's own secular humanism) and anti-establishment themes. 'Bread and Circuses' and 'The Omega Glory' have themes that are more pro-Christian or patriotic.^{[original research?]}

The show experienced network and/or sponsor interference, up to and including wholesale censorship of scripts and film footage. This was a regular occurrence in the 1960s and Star Trek suffered from its fair share of tampering. Scripts were routinely vetted and censored by the staff of NBC's Broadcast Standards Department, which copiously annotated every script with demands for cuts or changes (e.g. 'Page 4: Please delete McCoy's expletive, 'Good Lord'' or 'Page 43: Caution on the embrace; avoid open-mouthed kiss').^[103]

The series was noted for its sense of humor, such as Spock and McCoy's pointed, yet friendly, bickering. Certain episodes, such as 'The Trouble with Tribbles', 'I, Mudd' and 'A Piece of the Action', were written and staged as comedies with dramatic elements. Most episodes were presented as action/adventure dramas, frequently including space battles or fist fights between the ship's crew and guest antagonists.

Several episodes used the concept of planets developing parallel to Earth, allowing reuse of stock props, costumes and sets. 'Bread and Circuses', 'Miri' and 'The Omega Glory' depict such worlds; 'A Piece of the Action', 'Patterns of Force' and 'Plato's Stepchildren' are based on alien planets that have adopted period Earth cultures (Prohibition-era Chicago, Nazi Germany and ancient Greece, respectively). Two episodes depicting time travel ('Tomorrow Is Yesterday' and 'Assignment: Earth') conveniently place Enterprise in orbit above 1960s Earth; a third ('The City on the Edge of Forever') places members of the crew on 1930s Earth.

Top ranked episodes[edit]

Several publications have ranked the ten best episodes of Star Trek:

Of the sixteen episodes listed above, ten – 'Where No Man Has Gone Before', 'The Enemy Within', 'The Naked Time', 'Balance of Terror', 'The Galileo Seven', 'Arena', 'Space Seed', 'This Side of Paradise', 'The Devil in the Dark', and 'The City on the Edge of Forever' – are from the first season and five – 'Amok Time', 'The Doomsday Machine', 'Mirror, Mirror', 'The Trouble with Tribbles', and 'Journey to Babel' – are from the second season. Only one – 'The Enterprise Incident' – derives from the third season.

Episodes[edit]

Leonard Nimoy: Star Trek Memories[edit]

In 1983, Leonard Nimoy hosted a one-hour special as a promotional tie-in with the film Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, in which he recounted his memories of working on the original series and explained the origins of things such as the Vulcan nerve pinch and the Vulcan salute, as well as a re-airing of the TOS episode 'Space Seed'.^[108]

Broadcast history[edit]

Television channels were the primary method of viewing until the advent of home videocassette tapes of Star Trek in the 1980s.^[109]

Music[edit]

Theme tune[edit]

The show's theme tune, immediately recognizable by many, was written by Alexander Courage, and has been featured in several Star Trek spin-off episodes and motion pictures. Gene Roddenberry subsequently wrote a set of accompanying lyrics, even though the lyrics were never used in the series, nor did Roddenberry ever intend them to be; this allowed him to claim co-composer credit and hence 50% of the theme's performance royalties. Courage considered Roddenberry's actions, while entirely legal, to be unethical.^[110] Series producer Robert Justman noted in the book Inside Star Trek The Real Story, that work on the film Doctor Dolittle kept Courage from working on more than two episodes of the first season. However, Justman also believed that Courage lost enthusiasm for the series because of the 'royalty' issue.^[47]:185 Courage did not score any episodes of the second season; however he did conduct a recording session for about 30 minutes of 'library cues' for the second season, on June 16, 1967.^[111] Courage returned to score two episodes of the third season.

Later episodes used stock recordings from Courage's earlier work. Jazz trumpeter Maynard Ferguson recorded a jazz fusion version of the tune with his band during the late 1970s, and Nichelle Nichols performed the song live complete with lyrics.

The Lyrics for the song are:'Beyond the rim of star-lightmy love is wand'ring in star-flightI know he'll find in star-clustered reacheslove,strange love a star women teachesI know his journey ends neverhis star trek will go on foreverbut tell him while he wanders his starry searemember, Remember me.'^[112]

Dramatic underscore[edit]

For budgetary reasons, this series made significant use of 'tracked' music, or music written for other episodes that was reused in later episodes. Of the 79 episodes that were broadcast, only 31 had complete or partial original dramatic underscores created specifically for them. The remainder of the music in any episode was tracked from other episodes and from cues recorded for the music library. Which episodes would have new music was mostly the decision of Robert H. Justman, the Associate Producer during the first two seasons.

Screen credits for the composers were given based on the amount of music composed for, or composed and reused in, the episode. Some of these final music credits were occasionally incorrect.

Beyond the short works of 'source' music (music whose source is seen or acknowledged onscreen) created for specific episodes, eight composers were contracted to create original dramatic underscore during the series run: Alexander Courage, George Duning, Jerry Fielding, Gerald Fried, Sol Kaplan, Samuel Matlovsky, Joseph Mullendore, and Fred Steiner. The composers conducted their own music. Of these composers, Steiner composed the original music for thirteen episodes and it is his instrumental arrangement of Alexander Courage's main theme that is heard over many of the end title credits of the series.

The tracked musical underscores were chosen and edited to the episode by the music editors, principal of whom were Robert Raff (most of Season One), Jim Henrikson (Season One and Two), and Richard Lapham (Season Three).^[113]

Some of the original recordings of the music were released in the United States commercially on the GNP Crescendo Record Co. label. Music for a number of the episodes was re-recorded by Fred Steiner and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra for the Varèse Sarabande label; and by Tony Bremner with the Royal Philharmonic for the Label X label. Finally in December 2012, the complete original recordings were released by La-La Land Records as a 15-CD box set, with liner notes by Jeff Bond.^[114]

Episodes with original music[edit]

Listed in production order. Episodes that were only partially scored are in italics.^[115]

Season 1:

1. 'The Cage' (Alexander Courage)
2. 'Where No Man Has Gone Before' (Alexander Courage)
3. 'The Corbomite Maneuver' (Fred Steiner)
4. 'Mudd's Women' (Fred Steiner)
5. 'The Enemy Within' (Sol Kaplan)
6. 'The Man Trap' (Alexander Courage)
7. 'The Naked Time' (Alexander Courage)
8. 'Charlie X' (Fred Steiner)
9. 'Balance of Terror' (Fred Steiner)
10. 'What Are Little Girls Made Of?' (Fred Steiner)
11. 'The Conscience of the King' (Joseph Mullendore)
12. 'Shore Leave' (Gerald Fried)
13. 'The City on the Edge of Forever' (Fred Steiner)

Season 2:

1. 'Catspaw' (Gerald Fried)
2. 'Metamorphosis' (George Duning)
3. 'Friday's Child' (Gerald Fried)
4. 'Who Mourns for Adonais?' (Fred Steiner)
5. 'Amok Time' (Gerald Fried)
6. 'The Doomsday Machine' (Sol Kaplan)
7. 'Mirror, Mirror' (Fred Steiner)
8. 'I, Mudd' (Samuel Matlovsky)
9. 'The Trouble with Tribbles' (Jerry Fielding)
10. 'By Any Other Name' (Fred Steiner)
11. 'Patterns of Force' (George Duning)
12. 'The Omega Glory' (Fred Steiner)
13. 'Return to Tomorrow' (George Duning)

Season 3:

1. 'Spectre of the Gun' (Jerry Fielding)
2. 'Elaan of Troyius' (Fred Steiner)
3. 'The Paradise Syndrome' (Gerald Fried)
4. 'The Enterprise Incident' (Alexander Courage)
5. 'And the Children Shall Lead' (George Duning)
6. 'Spock's Brain' (Fred Steiner)
7. 'Is There in Truth No Beauty?' (George Duning)
8. 'The Empath' (George Duning)
9. 'Plato's Stepchildren' (Alexander Courage)

Note: Although 'The Way to Eden' had no original score, the episode had special musical material by Arthur Heinemann (the episode's writer), guest star Charles Napier and Craig Robertson. 'Requiem for Methuselah' contains a Johannes Brahms interpretation by Ivan Ditmars.

Awards[edit]

Although this series never won any Emmys, Star Trek was nominated for the following Emmy Awards:

• Outstanding Dramatic Series (Gene Roddenberry and Gene L. Coon), 1967
• Outstanding Dramatic Series (Gene Roddenberry), 1968
• Outstanding Supporting Actor (Leonard Nimoy as Mr. Spock), 1967, 1968, 1969
• Individual Achievement in Art Direction and Allied Crafts (Jim Rugg), 1967
• Individual Achievement in Cinematography (Darrell Anderson, Linwood G. Dunn, and Joseph Westheimer), 1967
• Individual Achievement in Film and Sound Editing (Douglas Grindstaff), 1967
• Outstanding Achievement in Film Editing (Donald R. Rode), 1968
• Special Classification of Individual Achievement for Photographic Effects (The Westheimer Company), 1968
• Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction and Scenic Design (John Dwyer and Walter M. Jefferies), 1969
• Outstanding Achievement in Film Editing (Donald R. Rode), 1969
• Special Classification Achievements for Photographic Effects (The Howard A. Anderson Company, The Westheimer Company, Van der Veer Photo Effects, Cinema Research), 1969.

Eight of its episodes were nominated for one of science-fiction's top awards, the Hugo Award, in the category 'Best Dramatic Presentation'. In 1967, the nominated episodes were 'The Naked Time', 'The Corbomite Maneuver', and 'The Menagerie'. In 1968, all nominees were Star Trek episodes: 'Amok Time', 'Mirror, Mirror', 'The Doomsday Machine', 'The Trouble with Tribbles', and 'The City on the Edge of Forever'. Star Trek won both years for the episodes 'The Menagerie' and 'The City on the Edge of Forever', respectively. In 1968, Star Trek (the T.V. show) won a special Hugo Award for Dramatic Presentation. No episode was named. This was the show's 3rd Hugo Award.

In 1967, Star Trek was also one of the first television programs to receive an NAACP Image Award.

In 1968, Star Trek's most critically acclaimed episode, 'The City on the Edge of Forever,' written by Harlan Ellison, won the prestigious Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Teleplay, although this was for Ellison's original draft script, and not for the screenplay of the episode as it aired.

In 1997, 'The City on the Edge of Forever' was ranked #92 on TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time.^[116]

In 2004 and 2007, TV Guide ranked Star Trek as the greatest cult show ever.^[117][118]

In 2013, TV Guide ranked Star Trek as the greatest sci-fi show (along with Star Trek: The Next Generation)^[119] and the #12 greatest show of all time.^[120]

Distribution[edit]

Home media[edit]

Episodes of the Original Series were among the first television series to be released on the VHS and laserdisc formats in North America in the 1980s, with all episodes eventually being released on both formats. With the advent of DVD in the mid-1990s, single DVDs featuring two episodes each in production order were released. In the early 2000s, Paramount Home Video reissued the series to DVD in a series of three deluxe season boxes with added featurettes and documentaries. In February 2009 CBS and Paramount announced that they would release the Original Series on Blu-ray. Season one, two, and three were released on April 28, September 22, and December 15, respectively. The Blu-ray releases let the user choose between 'Enhanced Effects' or 'Original Effects' via a technique called multi-angle.^[121]

This first Star Trek episode on VHS for home sale was released in 1982, as prior to this titles were rental only.^[109] This market was called the 'sell through' market at that time.^[109]

Star Trek was quite popular on VHS cassette, and in 1986 sales of original series episodes on VHS reached 1 million units.^[122]

All 79 episodes of the series have been digitally remastered by CBS Home Entertainment (distributed by Paramount) and have since been released on DVD.CBS Home Entertainment released season one of The Original Series on Blu-ray on April 28, 2009. The Blu-ray release contains both Original and Remastered episodes by seamless branching.

Bitstream Font Navigator 2006

Online distribution[edit]

CBS Interactive is presenting all 3 seasons of the series via the tv.comiPhone app. The full-length episodes, without the new CGI but digitally processed to remove the original celluloid artifacts, are available to users in the USA at no charge but with embedded ads. Short clips from the shows are also viewable at their web site.^[123] The company has recently presented all 3 seasons of the series via its CBS All Access premium streaming service. It has all full-length episodes, without the new CGI, like the tv.com app, and is available to users in the USA with subscription without ad interruptions.

In January 2007, the first season of Star Trek: The Original Series became available for download from Apple's iTunes Store. Although consumer reviews indicate that some of the episodes on iTunes are the newly 'remastered' editions, iTunes editors had not indicated such, and if so, which are which. All first-season episodes that had been remastered and aired were available from iTunes, except 'Where No Man Has Gone Before', which remains in its original form. On March 20, 2007, the first season was again added to the iTunes Store, with separate downloads for the original and remastered versions of the show, though according to the customer reviews, the original version contains minor revisions such as special effect enhancements.^{[citation needed]}

Netflix began online streaming of five of the six Star Trek television series on July 1, 2011; Deep Space Nine followed on October 1, 2011.^[124]

Merchandising[edit]

Star Trek: The Original Series has inspired many commercial products, including toys, comic books, and many other materials. The comics are generally considered non-canon.

Action figures[edit]

In the early 1970s the Mego Corporation acquired the license to produce Star Trekaction figures, which the company successfully marketed from 1974–1976. During this period, the company produced a line of 8' figures featuring Captain Kirk, Mr. Spock, Leonard McCoy, Mr. Scott, Lt. Uhura, 'Aliens' (a Klingon, a Neptunian, the Keeper, a Gorn, a Cheron, a Romulan, a Talosian, an Andorian, and a Mugato), and numerous playsets. (Mego also produced a 'life-size' toy tricorder.)

In the mid-2000s, Paul 'Dr. Mego' Clarke and Joe Sena founded EMCE Toys (pronounced 'MC') to bring Mego toys back to the marketplace. (Mego went out of business in 1983.)^[125] Working with Diamond Select Toys, current holders of the Star Trek license, these figures have been selling in comics shops. New characters are currently^[when?] being produced that Mego did not originally make, such as Lt. Sulu, Ensign Chekov, and 'Space Seed' villain Khan Noonien Singh. The Gorn that Mego produced had a brown Lizard head (identical to the Marvel Comics villain) on a brown body wearing a Klingon outfit. Star Trek fans had frequently wished that Mego had made a 'TV-accurate' Gorn; EMCE Toys and DST produced a new green Gorn based on the TV episode 'Arena'.^{[citation needed]} EMCE Toys hired original Mego packaging artist Harold Schull to illustrate new artwork for Sulu, Chekov, Khan, and the Gorn.^{[citation needed]} EMCE Toys is continuing the Mego revival with the production of more Star Trek figures, including Captain Pike and the Salt Vampire.^{[citation needed]}

Comic books[edit]

The first Star Trek comics were published by Gold Key Comics between 1967 and 1978. These comics were highly stylized and diverged wildly from the TV series continuity. Most storylines used in the Gold Key series featured original characters and concepts, although later issues did include sequels to the original series episodes 'The City on the Edge of Forever', 'Metamorphosis' and 'I, Mudd'. Writers included George Kashdan, Arnold Drake and Len Wein. Originally they were illustrated by Alberto Giolitti, an Italian artist who had never seen the series and only had publicity photos to use as references. Since Giolitti didn't have a publicity photo of James Doohan, early issues of the series had Mr. Scott drawn differently. The original issues, most of which featured photographic covers showing images from the series, are highly collectable. They are fondly remembered by fans, and a series of reprints ('The Key Collection') of these original titles began to appear in 2004, published by Checker. The Gold Key series had a run of 61 issues. Gold Key lost the Star Trek license to Marvel Comics in 1979 (although Marvel's license from Paramount prohibited them from utilizing concepts introduced in the original series).^[126]

From 1969 to 1973, a series of weekly Star Trekcomic strips ran in the British comics magazine eventually known as TV Century 21. A total of 258 issues were produced, as well as various annuals and specials. All were original stories. Two more annuals, under the Mighty TV Comic banner, also produced original Star Trek materials. In addition, the weekly TV Comic reprinted serialized versions of the U.S. Gold Key comics.^[127]

In 1977–1978, before home video was widely available, Mandala Productions and Bantam Books published FotoNovels of TOS that included direct adaptations of actual color television episode frames (with word balloons) in comics format.

From February 1984 through February 1996, DC Comics held the license to publish comic books based upon the Star Trek franchise, including Star Trek: The Original Series. The main DC Comics Star Trek title was published in two series, comprising 136 issues, 9 annuals, and a number of special issues, plus several mini-series that linked TOS and the subsequent series Star Trek: The Next Generation (TNG).

Marvel Comics again obtained the Star Trek license in 1996. Marvel (under the 'Marvel/Paramount comics' imprint) published various one-shots and the quarterly Star Trek Unlimited series, which covered TOS as well as TNG.^[128] They also introduced the new series Star Trek: Early Voyages, which dealt with Christopher Pike's adventures as captain of the Enterprise (as depicted in the rejected TOS pilot 'The Cage'). Fan acceptance of these comics got off to a shaky start when Marvel's inaugural publication of its new Star Trek line turned out to be a crossover between TOS and Marvel's popular superhero team, the X-Men. However, the series turned out to be relatively popular, registering strong sales.

Beginning in 2006, Tokyopop published two projects based upon the original series. The new comic anthologies, produced by Joshua Ortega, were released annually in September 2006 (Shinsei Shinsei) and 2007 (Kakan ni Shinkou). Five artists and writer teams presented five new stories, per volume, based on the original series.^[129]

Cultural influence[edit]

Roddenberry was 'committed to a liberalism that believed in prosperity, technological progress, and universal humanity' and at odds withthe New Left, which 'saw the evils of society as the consequence not merely of capitalism but of technology and reason itself.'^[130]

Parodies[edit]

The Original Series has been parodied many times in other television series. Saturday Night Live produced two famous sketches parodying The Original Series, 'The Last Voyage of the Starship Enterprise' in 1976^[131] and William Shatner's own 'Get a life' sketch in 1986 (which parodied the show's 'trekkie' followers). 'The Last Voyage of the Starship Enterprise' is a twelve-minute sketch, written by Michael O'Donoghue. It was described by TrekMovie.com as 'one of the best Star Trek parody sketches of all time'.^[131]TVSquad ranked Shatner's 'Get a life' sketch alongside 'The Last Voyage..' as one of the most famous parodies of the show.^[132]

The Canadian comedy duo Wayne and Shuster parodied Star Trek as Star Schtick in the late 1970s. An entire Finnish parody series Star Wreck was produced starting in 1992, culminating with Star Wreck: In the Pirkinning in 2005, all available as legal downloads on the web.^[133]

The series has also been parodied on The Simpsons,^[132]Family Guy and notably in the Futurama episode 'Where No Fan Has Gone Before', which was described by Wired magazine as a 'touchstone' for fans.^[134] The 1999 film Galaxy Quest portrays the lives of a once-popular television space-drama crew who are kidnapped by real aliens who have mistaken the fictional series for reality.^[135][136] The main characters are parodies of Star Trek characters, and many of the plot elements refer to or parody popular 1960s TV-series customs.^[137]

John Scalzi's novel Redshirts, winner of the 2013 Hugo Award for Best Novel, uses the theme of red-shirted Star Fleet officers as cannon fodder.

Fan productions[edit]

Star Trek has inspired many fans to produce stories for free Internet distribution. Many of these are set in the time of The Original Series, including Star Trek: Phase II which was nominated for a Hugo Award and received support from actors and writers who were involved with The Original Series.

Reception[edit]

Rod Serling said of the series that 'Star Trek was again a very inconsistent show which at times sparkled with true ingenuity and pure science fiction approaches. At other times it was more carnival-like, and very much more the creature of television than the creature of a legitimate literary form.'^[138]

Isaac Asimov and Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry developed a unique relationship during Star Trek's initial run in the late 1960s. Asimov wrote a critical essay on Star Trek's scientific accuracy for TV Guide magazine. Roddenberry retorted respectfully with a personal letter explaining the limitations of accuracy when writing a weekly series. Asimov corrected himself with a follow-up essay to TV Guide claiming despite its inaccuracies, that Star Trek was a fresh and intellectually challenging science fiction television show. The two remained friends to the point where Asimov even served as an adviser on a number of Star Trek projects.^[139]

In 2016, in a listing that included each Star Trek film and TV series together, this series was ranked first by the L.A. Times, ahead of the 1982 film Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, in third place.^[140]

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In 2017, Vulture ranked the original Star Trek the third best live-action Star Trek television show, while at the same time praising it for 'laying down the foundation'.^[141]

In 2018, IndieWire ranked Star Trek the original series as the 8th best space science fiction show set in outer space, including 18 overall shows from this genre.^[142]

In 2018, Io9/Gizmodo ranked the fictional spacecraft design shown in this television series, the Enterprise, as the number one best version of starship Enterprise of the Star Trek franchise.^[143] They felt that the original design was still superior to almost a dozen different later versions.^[143]

In 2019, Nerdist ranked the original series number one best out seven Star Trek franchise television series, including up to the second season of Star Trek: Discovery.^[144]

In 2019, Popular Mechanics ranked Star Trek the 6th best science fiction television show ever.^[145]

See also[edit]

• 'Beam me up, Scotty'

References[edit]

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External links[edit]

• Official website
• Star Trek: The Original Series at CBS
• Star Trek: The Original Series on IMDb
• Star Trek: The Original Series at TV.com
• Star Trek: The Original Series collected news and commentary at The New York Times